Virtù in Machiavellian Political Thought
In the realm of political philosophy, few terms are as misunderstood or as pivotal as virtù. While the modern English word "virtue" typically evokes images of moral purity and kindness, the Italian concept of virtù—particularly as employed by Niccolò Machiavelli—represents a far more complex intersection of power, skill, and strategic necessity.
The Classical and Medieval Roots of Virtù
The term virtù is derived from the Latin virtus, which originally denoted "manliness" in the sense of a gentleman's qualities. Historically, it is linked to the Greek concept of aretḗ (excellence or virtue) and the medieval Catholic tradition of the seven virtues. In these contexts, virtù was generally viewed as the opposite of vizio (vice).
This lineage connects Machiavelli's work to virtue ethics, a philosophical approach that emphasizes the character of the individual rather than a strict set of rules. However, Machiavelli shifted the focus of these classical ideals to fit the harsh realities of governance.
The Distinction Between the Good Man and the Good Ruler
A central tension in political thought is whether the qualities that make a person "good" are the same as those that make a citizen or leader "good." Aristotle first questioned if the virtue of a good man and that of a sound citizen were identical. Later, Thomas Aquinas noted that a person could be a good citizen without necessarily possessing the qualities of a good man.
Machiavelli expanded this distinction. While Aristotle and Aquinas focused on beneficence and concord, Machiavelli prioritized courage and effectiveness. He argued that the marks of a successful ruler are not necessarily the marks of a moral person.
Defining Machiavellian Virtù
For Machiavelli, virtù is not about moral righteousness, but about the ability to achieve a political goal. It encompasses a specific set of traits:
- Pride and Bravery: The confidence to lead and the courage to act.
- Skill and Forcefulness: The technical ability to manage a state and the strength to impose order.
- Strategic Ruthlessness: The capacity to employ harsh measures when they are necessary for the stability of the state.
In practice, virtù is the combination of the intelligence to recognize what must be done and the willpower to execute that action, even if the action is starkly immoral.
Virtù in Practice: Case Studies of Power
In his work The Prince, Machiavelli uses historical figures to illustrate the difference between calculated virtù and mindless brutality.
He praises Cesare Borgia and the Roman emperor Septimius Severus. Although both men used significant ruthlessness and brutality to rise to power, Machiavelli viewed their actions as expressions of virtù because their violence was purposeful and served a strategic end.
Conversely, Machiavelli criticizes Agathocles of Syracuse and Caracalla (the son of Severus). He denies that these men possessed virtù because their brutality was unnecessary. In their cases, violence was not a tool of statecraft but a lack of discernment; they simply did not know what needed to be done.
Key Facts
- Etymology: Derived from Latin virtus (manliness/gentlemanly qualities) and related to Greek aretḗ.
- Core Definition: The intelligence to identify necessary actions coupled with the fortitude to execute them.
- Key Traits: Includes bravery, skill, pride, and the ability to be ruthless when required.
- Moral Distinction: Machiavelli distinguishes between the virtues of a "good person" and the virtues of a "good ruler."
- Requirement for Success: Brutality is only considered virtù if it is necessary and strategic, not arbitrary.
| Perspective | Primary Focus | Key Qualities |
|---|---|---|
| Classical/Catholic | Moral Excellence | Beneficence, Concord, Seven Virtues |
| Aristotelian/Thomist | Civic vs. Personal | Practical Wisdom, Citizenship |
| Machiavellian | Political Efficacy | Courage, Skill, Strategic Ruthlessness |
Frequently Asked Questions
Is virtù the same as being a "virtuous" person?
No. While traditional virtue refers to moral goodness, Machiavellian virtù refers to the effectiveness and power of a ruler. A ruler may possess virtù while performing actions that are considered immoral by standard ethical codes.
Why did Machiavelli praise Cesare Borgia?
Machiavelli praised Borgia because he demonstrated the intelligence and willpower to use ruthlessness strategically to secure and maintain power, which is the essence of virtù.
What is the difference between virtù and simple brutality?
The difference lies in necessity and purpose. Virtù involves using force only when it is required to achieve a specific goal. Brutality without a strategic purpose—such as that shown by Caracalla—is viewed by Machiavelli as a lack of virtù.
How does virtù relate to Aristotle's Politics?
Machiavelli follows Aristotle's lead in suggesting that the virtues required for a private individual and those required for a citizen or ruler are often different. He applies this to argue that a ruler must prioritize practical wisdom and effectiveness over personal morality.