Racial Segregation in the United States

Racial segregation in the United States refers to the systematic separation of people based on racial categorizations. While most prominently associated with the separation of Black and white people, it also encompassed the de facto (existing in practice) separation of other ethnic minorities from majority communities. This separation extended across nearly every facet of American life, including housing, healthcare, education, employment, and transportation.

Beyond physical separation, segregation manifested through institutional roles and legal prohibitions, such as anti-miscegenation laws that banned interracial marriage. Even within the U.S. Armed Forces, formal segregation persisted until 1948, where Black units were kept separate and typically commanded by white officers.

Key Facts

A black man goes into the "colored" entrance of a movie theater in Belzoni, Mississippi, 1939.[27]

De Jure Segregation: Separation mandated by law, most notably through Jim Crow laws in the South.
De Facto Segregation: Separation that occurs through social custom or economic patterns without legal requirement.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): The Supreme Court ruling that established the "separate but equal" doctrine.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): The landmark case that overturned segregation in public schools.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: Federal legislation that outlawed de jure segregation in public accommodations.
Hypersegregation: An extreme form of residential segregation found in several major U.S. metropolitan areas.

The Legal Evolution of Segregation

Although the ban on interracial marriage ended in California in 1948, entertainer Sammy Davis Jr. faced backlash for his involvement with a white woman in 1957.

The legal landscape of racial separation was shaped by several pivotal Supreme Court decisions and legislative acts. In the 1857 Dred Scott v. Sandford case, the Court ruled that Black people were not U.S. citizens and were not protected by the Constitution.

Following the Civil War, the Reconstruction era saw attempts to establish equality. The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) granted African Americans the right to vote, while the Civil Rights Act of 1875 forbade segregation in accommodations. However, the Supreme Court overturned the 1875 Act in 1883.

The era of Jim Crow—named after a minstrel show character—was solidified by the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision. This ruling upheld the constitutionality of "separate but equal" facilities. In reality, these facilities were rarely equal, creating a system of second-class citizenship.

An African-American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, 1939 by Russell Lee[15]

The Path to Desegregation

The tide began to turn in 1954 with Brown v. Board of Education, which unanimously ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. This was followed by other landmark cases, such as Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964), which helped dismantle the Jim Crow system.

Stand in the Schoolhouse Door: Governor George Wallace attempts to block the enrollment of black students at the University of Alabama.

De Jure vs. De Facto Segregation

A Black military policeman in front of a "colored" entrance in Columbus, Georgia, 1942

To understand segregation, it is essential to distinguish between its two primary forms:

De Jure Segregation: This is segregation by law. It was enforced through slave codes before the Civil War and later through Black Codes and Jim Crow laws. These were eventually outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.
De Facto Segregation: This is segregation that exists without legal sanction. It is driven by social behavior, economic disparities, and the historical legacy of de jure laws. This form persists today, particularly in residential and school settings.

Sign for "colored" waiting room at a Greyhound bus terminal in Rome, Georgia, 1943. Throughout the Southern United States there were Jim Crow laws creating de jure legally required segregation.

Regional Differences

While de jure segregation was most prevalent in the Southern United States, the North and West experienced significant de facto segregation. Private business owners often enforced their own exclusionary policies, such as "white only" establishments, which were not outlawed until the 1960s.

A sign reading "We Cater to White Trade Only" — "We Cater to White Trade Only" sign on a restaurant window in Lancaster, Ohio, in 1938. Ohio, like most of the North and West, did not have de jure statutory enforced segregation (Jim Crow laws), but many places still had de facto social segregation in the early 20th century. Together with state sponsored segregation, such private owner enforced segregation was outlawed for public accommodations in the 1960s.[3]

Residential Segregation and Hypersegregation

Negro section of keypunch operators at the U.S. Census Bureau

Residential segregation was often reinforced by systemic practices like redlining, where certain neighborhoods were marked as "detrimental" based on racial composition, limiting investment and homeownership for minorities.

Page of HOLC document from Philadelphia redlining map. Zone D20, one of the red areas. It lists the 'Detrimental Influences' as a "concentration of Negros and Italians."

As industries moved out of inner cities, many African American residents were unable to leave, leading to the creation of inner-city ghettos. This resulted in hypersegregation. According to 2000 Census data, 29 metropolitan areas showed Black-white hypersegregation, with Los Angeles and New York City also displaying Hispanic-white hypersegregation.

Map showing a large concentration of black residents in the north side of metropolitan Milwaukee. — Residential segregation in Milwaukee, the most segregated city in America according to the 2000 US Census. The cluster of blue dots represent black residents.[116]: 72–73

The Lasting Impact of Segregation

Founded by former Confederate soldiers after the Civil War (1861–1865), the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used violence and intimidation to prevent blacks from voting, holding political office and attending school.

The effects of segregation continue to influence American society, particularly in education and economic stability.

Education and Opportunity

Despite legal bans, school segregation remains a challenge. In the 2002–2003 academic year, public school enrollment in Chicago was 87% Black or Hispanic, while Washington, D.C. was 94% Black or Hispanic. A Government Accountability Office report noted that from 2000 to 2014, the percentage of deprived Black or Hispanic students in K–12 public schools increased from 9% to 16%.

A "Colored School" in South Carolina, c. 1878

Economic and Social Costs

A 2017 study by the Metropolitan Planning Council and the Urban Institute estimated that racial and economic segregation costs the United States billions of dollars annually. Analysis of 100 urban hubs between 1990 and 2010 found that economic segregation affecting Black populations was associated with higher homicide rates.

Summary of Key Legal Milestones in U.S. Segregation
Year	Event/Case	Impact
1857	Dred Scott v. Sandford	Ruled Black people were not U.S. citizens.
1896	Plessy v. Ferguson	Established "separate but equal" doctrine.
1948	Executive Order 9981	Ended segregation in the U.S. Armed Forces.
1954	Brown v. Board of Education	Outlawed segregated public schools.
1964	Civil Rights Act	Outlawed de jure segregation in public accommodations.
1968	Fair Housing Act	Banned discrimination in housing.

Frequently Asked Questions

White tenants seeking to prevent blacks from moving into the Sojourner Truth housing project erected this sign. Detroit, 1942.

A sign posted above a bar that reads "No beer sold to Indians" (Native Americans). Birney, Montana, 1941.

Discrimination in a restaurant in Juneau, Alaska, in 1908: "All White Help."

The Rex theater for colored people, Leland, Mississippi, 1937

What is the difference between de jure and de facto segregation?

De jure segregation is separation mandated by law (such as Jim Crow laws), whereas de facto segregation occurs through social patterns, individual choices, or economic conditions without legal requirement.

What was the "separate but equal" doctrine?

Established by the Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), this doctrine claimed that racial segregation was legal as long as the facilities provided to each race were equal in quality. In practice, facilities for Black Americans were almost always inferior.

When did the U.S. military end segregation?

Segregation in the United States Armed Forces ended on July 26, 1948, when President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981.

What is hypersegregation?

Hypersegregation is an extreme form of residential segregation where a minority group is isolated not only by race but also by high concentrations of poverty and limited access to resources, often resulting in the formation of inner-city ghettos.

Does racial segregation still exist in the U.S.?

While de jure segregation is illegal, de facto segregation persists today, particularly in residential patterns and the composition of public school districts in many major cities.