Ming Dynasty Jurchen Dictionaries
For modern linguists studying the extinct Jurchen language, two primary resources stand above the rest. These dictionaries, produced during the Ming Dynasty, were created by two specialized government agencies: the Bureau of Translators (Siyi Guan) and the Bureau of Interpreters (Huìtóng Guǎn). These institutions were tasked with facilitating communication between the imperial government and foreign nations or ethnic minorities, handling written and oral correspondence respectively.
The Huá-Yí yìyǔ (Sino-Barbarian Dictionary)
The multilingual dictionary produced by the Bureau of Translators is known as the Huá-Yí yìyǔ, or the "Sino-Barbarian Dictionary." While Europeans had been aware of the general existence of this work since 1789 through Jean Joseph Marie Amiot, the specific section containing the Jurchen language remained undiscovered until the late 19th century. It was eventually studied and published by Wilhelm Grube in 1896, sparking further research across China and Japan.
This dictionary was pivotal because it provided the first foundation for the serious academic study of Jurchen. It functioned by translating Chinese words into Jurchen, providing both the original Jurchen characters and a phonetic transcription using Chinese characters. However, because Chinese characters were used to approximate the sounds of Jurchen, these transcriptions are considered rather imprecise.
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The Bureau of Interpreters' Vocabulary Lists
The second major resource consists of vocabulary lists compiled by the Bureau of Interpreters. Western scholars first became aware of these lists in 1910, and by 1912, L. Aurousseau reported the existence of a Jurchen section within a manuscript provided by Yang Shoujing.
While similar in structure to the Huá-Yí yìyǔ, this dictionary differs in one critical way: it provides only the phonetic transcription of Jurchen words via Chinese characters and omits the Jurchen script entirely. The exact date of its creation is a subject of scholarly debate. Some suggest it was written by Mao Ruicheng as late as 1601, while others date it as early as 1450–1500. In 1989, researcher Daniel Kane analyzed the transcriptions and surmised the work likely dates to the first half of the 16th century.
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Linguistic Significance and Limitations
Both dictionaries record very similar linguistic forms. Scholars view these records as either a late stage of the Jurchen language or an early form of Manchu. Despite their value, modern researchers note that the staff at both Bureaus lacked deep competence in the language, particularly regarding Jurchen grammar.
According to Daniel Kane, the language documented in these texts was designed for basic communication—specifically for inevitable interactions with "barbarians" or for those bringing tribute to the Imperial Court.
Key Facts
- Primary Sources: The Huá-Yí yìyǔ (Bureau of Translators) and the vocabulary lists of the Bureau of Interpreters.
- Purpose: To facilitate imperial communication with foreign entities and ethnic minorities.
- Script: Only the Bureau of Translators' dictionary includes actual Jurchen characters; the other uses only Chinese phonetic transcriptions.
- Timeline: The Huá-Yí yìyǔ section was published by Wilhelm Grube in 1896; the Interpreters' list is estimated by Daniel Kane to be from the first half of the 16th century.
- Linguistic Status: The texts represent a transition between late Jurchen and early Manchu.
| Feature | Bureau of Translators (Huá-Yí yìyǔ) | Bureau of Interpreters |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Focus | Written communication | Oral communication |
| Jurchen Script | Included | Not included |
| Phonetic Transcription | Chinese characters (imprecise) | Chinese characters |
| Key Researcher | Wilhelm Grube (1896) | Daniel Kane (1989) |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Huá-Yí yìyǔ?
The Huá-Yí yìyǔ, or "Sino-Barbarian Dictionary," is a multilingual resource created by the Ming Dynasty's Bureau of Translators to help the imperial government communicate with foreign nations and minorities.
How do these dictionaries differ in their recording of the language?
The Bureau of Translators' dictionary provides both Jurchen characters and phonetic transcriptions. In contrast, the Bureau of Interpreters' lists provide only phonetic transcriptions using Chinese characters.
When were these dictionaries created?
The exact dates vary; while the Huá-Yí yìyǔ was known to Europeans by 1789, the Bureau of Interpreters' list is estimated by Daniel Kane to have been written in the first half of the 16th century, though other theories range from 1450 to 1601.
Are these dictionaries considered grammatically accurate?
No. Modern researchers believe the compilers were not very competent in Jurchen grammar, as the dictionaries were intended only for basic communication and the receiving of tribute.
What is the relationship between the language in these texts and Manchu?
The forms of the language recorded in both dictionaries are so similar that they are considered to be either a late form of Jurchen or an early form of Manchu.