Korean Punctuation and Writing Systems: From Middle Korean to Modern Orthography
The Korean language has a rich history of written expression, evolving through various systems to reach the streamlined alphabet used today. While the Korean alphabet—known internationally as Hangul (Hangeul in South Korea and Choson'gŭl in North Korea)—is now the dominant script, the way Koreans have marked pauses, tones, and structure has shifted dramatically over centuries.
Before the standardization of the modern alphabet, Korean was written using several systems, including Hanja (Chinese characters), Idu, Kugyŏl, and Hyangch'al. These early methods often relied on Chinese linguistic structures, meaning punctuation was primarily used for correction or to help readers interpret complex characters.
Key Facts
- Early Punctuation: The original Hangul system, kuduchŏm, used circles to mark significant breaks in reading.
- Tone Markings: Middle Korean used bangjeom (side dots) to indicate pitch or tone, a practice that declined by the 16th century.
- Modern Influence: Current punctuation in both North and South Korea is largely based on European standards, though East Asian styles persist in vertical writing.
- Regional Differences: South and North Korea maintain distinct guidelines for quotation marks, emphasis, and redaction symbols.
The Evolution of Early Korean Writing
In traditional systems based on Chinese characters, punctuation served a corrective purpose. For example, the kkiumpyo (⟨◦⟩) was used for insertions, while the sakjebu (⟨▯⟩) indicated deletions. To make Chinese characters more accessible to Korean speakers, the gugyeol system employed the yeokdokjeom (⟨•⟩), a dot used to signal the correct reading order.
Unlike modern Western styles, the conclusion of a thought was traditionally indicated by simply starting a new line of characters from the top.
The Original Hangul Punctuation: Kuduchŏm
When the Korean alphabet was first introduced, it used a system called kuduchŏm. In the 15th century, small circles were used to mark phrasal or sentential endings. A circle placed in the center after a syllable indicated a major break within a sentence, whereas a circle in the right corner of the final syllable cell likely marked the end of a sentence or a rising tone.
Tone Markings in Middle Korean
One of the most distinct features of early Hangul was the use of bangjeom (or pangchŏm), known as "side dots." These were placed to the left of characters to indicate the tone of Middle Korean:
- Level tone (평성): No dots.
- Departing tone (거성): A single dot (〮).
- Rising tone (상성): Two dots (〯).
- Entering tone (입성): No specific dot; it was considered implicit or, according to some scholars, non-existent.
While the creators of the system believed Middle Korean had tones similar to Chinese, modern scholars debate this. Some argue the language was actually a pitch-accent language with high and low pitches. By the 1580s, these markings largely disappeared as pitches became more predictable or the system shifted.
Transcribing Foreign Languages
Hangul has also been adapted to transcribe other languages, leading to unique punctuation. In works transcribing Manchu and Mongolian, circles were used as diacritics for unusual pronunciations. Because original Hangul lacked spaces, comma-like marks (resembling 、) were placed to the lower right of characters to indicate where spaces occurred in the original Manchu or Mongolian scripts. Additionally, some Japanese transcriptions borrowed the dakuten diacritic to indicate voicing.
Modern Punctuation Standards
Today, Korean punctuation is primarily based on European models, utilizing periods (machimpyo), commas (swimpyo), and question marks (mureumpyo). However, when writing vertically, East Asian styles prevail, such as the gorijeom (⟨。⟩) for periods and gyeomnatpyo (⟨ 『...』 ⟩) for quotation marks.
South Korean Orthography
South Korean guidelines for horizontal writing include several specialized marks:
- Interpunct (·): The gaundetjeom groups items inline (e.g., gold·silver·bronze).
- Major Titles: Double quotation marks 『 』 or guillemets ≪ ≫ are used for books and newspapers.
- Lesser Titles: Single quotation marks 「 」 or angle brackets < > are used for songs, paintings, or business names.
- Tilde (~): The mulgyeolpyo indicates ranges of dates, numbers, or distances.
- Emphasis (˙): The deureonaempyo draws attention to important information.
- Hiding Marks (O, X): The sumgimpyo is used for censorship or redaction.
- Missing Characters (□): The ppajimpyo indicates a missing character.
North Korean Orthography
North Korean horizontal writing follows its own set of rules:
- Guillemets 《 》: Used for quoted speech, titles, brands, and organization names.
- Angle Brackets 〈 〉: Used for nested quotes inside guillemets.
- Emphasis (mitchŏm): Single dots placed underneath each syllable.
- Ditto Mark (' '): The kat'ŭmp'yo indicates repeated information.
- Hiding Marks (O, X, □): Similar to the South, sumgimpyo is used for redaction.
| Feature | South Korean Usage | North Korean Usage |
|---|---|---|
| Major Titles/Quotes | 『 』 or ≪ ≫ | 《 》 |
| Nested Quotes | 「 」 or < > | 〈 〉 |
| Emphasis | Over-dot (˙) | Under-dot (mitchŏm) |
| Ranges | Tilde (~) or Hyphen (-) | Tilde (~) |
| Redaction | O, X (sumgimpyo) | O, X, □ (sumgimpyo) |
Frequently Asked Questions
What were bangjeom in early Hangul?
Bangjeom, or "side dots," were marks placed to the left of characters in Middle Korean to indicate the tone or pitch of the syllable. They included level, departing, and rising tones.
How does vertical writing affect Korean punctuation?
In vertical writing, Korean often reverts to East Asian styles. For example, periods and commas are placed at the bottom right of the preceding character, and certain marks like the tilde are rotated.
What is the difference between South and North Korean quotation marks?
South Korea uses a variety of marks including 『 』 and ≪ ≫ for major works and 「 」 or < > for lesser works. North Korea primarily uses guillemets 《 》 for quotes and titles, with angle brackets 〈 〉 for nested quotes.
Why did tone markings disappear from the Korean language?
Tone markings declined in the 16th century. Some scholars suggest that pitches became predictable and redundant, while others argue the pitch system itself was in a state of flux during that period.
What is the purpose of the sumgimpyo?
The sumgimpyo is a "hiding mark" (such as O or X) used to mask out content that is meant to be censored or redacted from a text.