Jewish People: History, Identity, and Global Demographics

The Jewish people are a distinct ethnoreligious group, meaning they share both a common ancestral heritage and a religious tradition. While often associated primarily with the religion of Judaism, Jewish identity encompasses a complex blend of ethnicity, culture, and nationality that has persisted for millennia across the globe.

From their origins in the ancient Near East to the establishment of the modern State of Israel and the vast networks of the diaspora, the Jewish experience is defined by a resilient sense of community and a deep connection to a shared history.

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Key Facts

Global Population: Estimated at 15.2 million (approximately 20 million when including those with one Jewish parent).
Primary Population Centers: Israel and the United States hold the largest communities.
Core Languages: Modern Hebrew, English, Russian, French, and Spanish are predominantly spoken today.
Sacred Languages: Biblical Hebrew, Biblical Aramaic, and Talmudic Aramaic.
Identity: Recognized as an ethnos (a people or nation) regardless of the existence of a sovereign state.

The Evolution of Jewish Identity

Depiction of King Jehu, tenth king of the northern Kingdom of Israel, on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 841–840 BCE.[127] This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".[128]

Jewish identity is multifaceted. Scholars and historians describe Jews as a nation and a people, a definition that predates the modern political state of Israel. This identity is rooted in a shared genetic history and a cultural legacy that has survived centuries of migration and persecution.

Historically, the group has been divided into various ethnic branches, most notably the Ashkenazi (Central and Eastern European) and Sephardic (Spanish and Portuguese) Jews, among others.

Bible manuscript in Hebrew, 14th century. Hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the Jewish national identity in antiquity.

Historical Journey: From Antiquity to the Modern Era

Temple menorah depicted on a coin of the Hasmonean king of Judaea Antigonus II Mattathias

Ancient Israel and Judah

The roots of the Jewish people lie in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Early depictions of Western Asiatics, such as those found in Egyptian tombs from c. 1900 BCE, provide a glimpse into the contemporaries of early Hebrew figures like Abraham and Joseph.

Egyptian depiction of the visit of Western Asiatics in colorful garments, labeled as Aamu. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan, and dated to c. 1900 BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as Abraham and Joseph.[93][94][95][96]

As the kingdoms evolved, they left behind significant archaeological footprints, including royal forts and city gates, such as those found in Hazor during the 9th century BCE.

Gate from the Israelite city of Hazor's royal fort, dating to the time of Ahab, 9th century BCE

The Second Temple Period and Roman Conflict

The Second Temple period was a pivotal era of religious and political development. However, this period also saw intense conflict with the Roman Empire. Following uprisings, the Romans destroyed the Temple and sought to subjugate the region, a period commemorated by coins inscribed Ivdaea Capta ("captive Judea").

A Roman coin inscribed Ivdaea Capta, or "captive Judea" (71 CE), representing Judea as a seated mourning woman (right), and a Jewish captive with hands tied (left)

The siege of the Masada fortress in the 1st century CE stands as a symbol of the final resistance against Roman rule in the region.

Masada fortress overlooking the Dead Sea, the location of a 1st-century Roman siege

The Diaspora and Middle Ages

The Diaspora refers to the dispersion of the Jewish people from their ancestral homeland to various parts of the world. During the Middle Ages, Jewish communities established themselves across Europe, North Africa, and Asia. While some experienced "golden ages" of cultural and scientific contribution, others faced systemic expulsions and pogroms (organized massacres).

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

The Modern Era and the State of Israel

The 19th and 20th centuries were marked by massive migrations. Between 1881 and 1924, over two million Jews fled the Russian Empire for the safety of the United States. The horrors of the Holocaust during World War II further decimated European populations, leading to a renewed drive for a sovereign homeland.

In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.[302]

The establishment of the State of Israel provided a national center for the Jewish people, though significant populations remain in the diaspora, particularly in North America.

Global Demographics and Distribution

Hebrew inscription in the Córdoba Synagogue, Spain (1315)

Today, the Jewish population is distributed globally, with the highest concentrations in Israel and the United States. New York City remains the largest Jewish community outside of Israel.

New York City is home to 960,000 Jews, making it the largest Jewish community outside of Israel.

Significant Jewish Populations by Region (Estimated)
Region/Country	Estimated Population
Israel (incl. occupied territories)	7,300,000 – 7,455,200
United States	6,300,000 – 7,500,000
France	438,500 – 550,000
Canada	400,000 – 450,000
United Kingdom	312,000 – 330,000
Argentina	171,000 – 240,000
Russia	132,000 – 290,000

Culture and Language

Maurycy Gottlieb's 1878 painting of Ashkenazi Jews praying in synagogue on Yom Kippur.

Language has always been a cornerstone of Jewish national identity. While Biblical Hebrew is the sacred tongue, the diaspora led to the creation of unique hybrid languages such as Yiddish (a blend of German and Hebrew) and Ladino (a blend of Spanish and Hebrew).

Interior of the Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam, painted by Emanuel de Witte, c. 1680, Rijksmuseum

Cultural practices vary between the Ashkenazi and Sephardic traditions, reflecting the different regions where these communities flourished, from the synagogues of Amsterdam to the festivals of Morocco.

Sephardic Jewish festival in Tétouan, Morocco, Alfred Dehodencq, 1865, Paris Museum of Jewish Art and History

Frequently Asked Questions

A menorah dominating the main square in Birobidzhan. An estimated 70,000 Jews live in Siberia.[303]

The Jewish Zionist Youth Movement in Tallinn, Estonia, on 1 September 1933

The Roman Emperor Nero sends Vespasian with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE.

World War I poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free—now let me help you set others free!"

Jews in Minsk, 1941. Before World War II, some 40 percent of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.

Residents of Lachish, Judah, being deported into exile following the conquest of the city by the Assyrians, c. 701 BCE

Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt in 1614. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate".

What is the difference between a Jew and a follower of Judaism?

A Jew is part of an ethnoreligious group, meaning they can be Jewish by birth (ethnicity) regardless of whether they actively practice the religion of Judaism. Judaism is the religious faith associated with the Jewish people.

What is the Jewish Diaspora?

The Diaspora is the dispersion of the Jewish people from their ancestral homeland in the Land of Israel to other parts of the world, resulting in diverse communities across every continent.

What are the main ethnic divisions within the Jewish people?

The two most prominent divisions are Ashkenazi Jews, who primarily settled in Central and Eastern Europe, and Sephardic Jews, who primarily settled in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and later North Africa and the Middle East.

Which languages are most important to Jewish identity?

Hebrew is the primary sacred and modern national language. Historically, Yiddish and Ladino served as vital community languages in the European and Mediterranean diasporas, respectively.

Where are the largest Jewish populations located today?

The largest populations are found in Israel and the United States, followed by significant communities in France, Canada, and the United Kingdom.