Japanese American Internment: Forced Relocation and the Path to Redress
During World War II, the United States government undertook a massive forced removal and confinement of people of Japanese ancestry. This period of incarceration remains one of the most significant civil liberties violations in American history, affecting approximately 120,000 individuals, the majority of whom were United States citizens.
The Forced Removal and Confinement
The internment process began shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Initially, the FBI arrested some 5,500 Japanese American men, who were sent directly to camps managed by the Department of Justice. While approximately 5,000 individuals were able to "voluntarily" relocate to other regions of the country, the vast majority—over 110,000 men, women, and children—were forcibly moved to relocation centers. These were hastily constructed camps located in remote areas of the U.S. interior, operated by the War Relocation Authority (WRA).
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Executive Order 9066 and Legal Justification
The legal mechanism for this action was Executive Order 9066, signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. This order empowered local military commanders to designate "military areas" from which any person could be excluded. Consequently, all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the continental Pacific coast, including all of Alaska and California, as well as portions of Washington, Oregon, and Arizona.
In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of these actions. The Court argued that curtailing the civil rights of a specific racial group was permissible when there was a "pressing public necessity."
Key Facts
- Total Interned: Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans.
- Citizenship: 62% of those interned were U.S. citizens.
- Legal Basis: Executive Order 9066 authorized the exclusion from military areas.
- Management: Camps were run by the Department of Justice and the War Relocation Authority (WRA).
- CWRIC Finding: The incarceration resulted from "race prejudice, war hysteria and a failure of political leadership."
- Redress: A formal apology and reparations were signed into law on August 10, 1988.
The Struggle for Redress and Reparations
While some compensation for property losses was provided in 1948, most internees never fully recovered their financial losses. By the 1960s and 1970s, a movement for redress—compensation for a wrong or injury—gained momentum. The Japanese American Citizens League began lobbying for legislative action in 1970, and by 1979, the National Council for Japanese American Redress filed a class-action lawsuit against the federal government.
Political pressure from Senator Daniel Inouye and Congressmen Robert Matsui, Spark Matsunaga, and Norman Mineta led to the creation of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC). This commission held hearings in 11 cities, collecting testimony from over 750 people. Their 1983 report, Personal Justice Denied, concluded that the displacement was caused by race prejudice and war hysteria, recommending monetary reparations.
Implementation of the 1988 Act
Despite resistance from President Reagan and some Senate Republicans, a bill providing a formal apology and reparations was signed into law on August 10, 1988. On October 9, 1990, the first reparations checks were presented. Nine elderly Issei (first-generation Japanese immigrants) each received $20,000 and a formal apology signed by President George H. W. Bush.
Payments to survivors or heirs continued until 1993 via the Office of Redress Administration. Additionally, the Civil Liberties Public Education Fund (CLPEF) was created to educate the public. Although originally authorized for $50 million, funding was reduced to $5 million due to anti-spending lobbying, with programs eventually running from 1997 to 1998 under an advisory board appointed by President Bill Clinton.
| Category | Details |
|---|---|
| Total Population Affected | ~120,000 people |
| Primary Legal Order | Executive Order 9066 |
| Key Governing Bodies | War Relocation Authority (WRA), Department of Justice |
| CWRIC Report Title | Personal Justice Denied (1983) |
| Redress Law Date | August 10, 1988 |
| Initial Reparation Amount | $20,000 per surviving internee |
Frequently Asked Questions
How many Japanese Americans were interned during World War II?
Approximately 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry were forced into confinement, 62% of whom were United States citizens.
What was Executive Order 9066?
It was an order signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt that allowed military commanders to designate "military areas" and exclude any person from them, which was used to remove Japanese Americans from the West Coast.
What did the report "Personal Justice Denied" conclude?
The report, published by the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians in 1983, stated that the internment was the result of race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership.
When did the U.S. government provide formal reparations?
The legislation for reparations was signed on August 10, 1988, and the first checks and formal apologies were presented on October 9, 1990.
What was the purpose of the Civil Liberties Public Education Fund?
The fund was established as part of the 1988 redress act to educate the general public about the incarceration of Japanese Americans during the war.