Ceuta and Melilla: A History of the Spanish Plazas de Soberanía
The plazas de soberanía (places of sovereignty) are a group of Spanish territories located on the North African coast. Primarily consisting of the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, as well as smaller outposts like Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, these exclaves represent a complex intersection of Roman legacy, medieval conquest, and modern geopolitical tension.
Ancient Foundations and Roman Rule
During the first century BC, the sites of present-day Ceuta and Melilla were integrated into the Roman sphere of influence. Following the execution of Ptolemy of Mauretania in AD 40—the son of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II—the Roman Empire annexed the client Kingdom of Mauretania. These territories became part of the province of Mauretania Tingitana.
By the late third century, administrative reforms under Emperor Diocletian incorporated the province into the Diocese of Hispania, with its capital located in Emerita Augusta (modern-day Mérida). In late antiquity, Ceuta transitioned through various hands, serving as a stronghold for the Germanic Vandal Kingdom before being conquered by the Byzantine Empire, which maintained control until 711.
The Era of Muslim Polities
Following the Arab conquest of the Maghreb, the regions that would become the plazas de soberanía were governed by several successive Muslim states. These included the Idrisid state (centered in Walili and later Fez), the Almoravid Empire and Almohad Caliphate (both based in Marrakesh), and the Marinid Sultanate of Fez. During this period, political authority was often fragmented, and Ceuta and Melilla frequently shifted between different regional rulers.
Iberian Conquest and Consolidation
The shift toward European control began in 1415 when Portugal conquered Ceuta. Following the Reconquista (the Christian reclamation of the Iberian Peninsula), Spain expanded its interests southward. In 1497, Spain captured Melilla from the Sultanate of Fez with Portuguese approval. In 1508, Spain seized the island of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, a claim recognized by Portugal in the 1509 Treaty of Sintra. Although the Kingdom of Fez briefly retook the Peñón in 1554, Spain reconquered it in 1564 and has held it ever since.
During the Iberian Union (1580–1640), when Spain and Portugal were joined under one crown, Ceuta saw an influx of Spanish settlers. Consequently, when Portugal regained independence in 1640, Ceuta chose to remain under Spanish rule, a decision formalized by the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668.
Defining the Modern Borders
The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by repeated Moroccan attempts to reclaim the exclaves. These conflicts culminated in the Hispano–Moroccan War of 1859–60. The resulting Treaty of Wad-Ras (also known as the Treaty of Tétouan) in 1860 expanded Ceuta's borders to their current limits.
Melilla's boundary proved more difficult to define. An initial attempt to fix the border by "the range of a piece of cannon" was deemed impractical. This led to a treaty on October 30, 1861, confirmed in 1862, which established the modern boundary line, followed by further refinements in 1894–95.
| Year | Event/Treaty | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| 1415 | Portuguese Conquest | Ceuta falls to Portugal |
| 1497 | Spanish Conquest | Melilla captured by Spain |
| 1668 | Treaty of Lisbon | Ceuta officially remains with Spain |
| 1860 | Treaty of Wad-Ras | Ceuta's borders expanded to present limits |
| 1912 | Franco-Spanish Treaty | Establishment of Spanish Morocco protectorate |
| 1956 | Hispano-Moroccan Joint Declaration | Spain relinquishes protectorate but retains plazas de soberanía |
The 20th Century and the Sovereignty Dispute
In 1912, a treaty between France and Spain granted Spain a protectorate over the Mediterranean littoral of Morocco, known as Spanish Morocco. Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera were absorbed into this administration. However, when Morocco gained independence from France in 1956, Spain relinquished the protectorate but maintained that the plazas de soberanía were integral parts of Spanish territory, as they had not been part of the 1912 protectorate agreement.
Morocco has since laid claim to these territories. A notable point of tension occurred in 1975, amid fears of an invasion similar to the Green March in Western Sahara. Additionally, a geological change occurred in 1934 when a massive storm created a tombolo (a sandy isthmus) connecting Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera to the mainland, transforming the island into a peninsula with an 85-metre international border.
Modern Border Security and Migration
To manage migration, Spain began constructing border fences in Ceuta and Melilla in 1993, strengthening them in 1995. By 2005, these were upgraded to a doubled-fence system featuring barbed wire and advanced surveillance equipment.
Recent years have seen significant volatility. In May 2021, over 6,000 migrants crossed into Ceuta, an event speculated to be a Moroccan response to Spain treating Polisario Front leader Brahim Ghali. In June 2022, a crowd crush during a crossing attempt at the Melilla fence resulted in 23 deaths. By July 2026, the Spanish Interior Ministry reported that approximately 60,000 migrants had entered Ceuta, with 72 fatalities recorded.
Key Facts
- Plazas de Soberanía: Spanish exclaves on the North African coast, including Ceuta and Melilla.
- Roman Legacy: Formerly part of the province of Mauretania Tingitana.
- Strategic Shifts: Ceuta was Portuguese before opting to remain Spanish in 1668.
- Border Definition: The Treaty of Wad-Ras (1860) finalized Ceuta's modern boundaries.
- Geological Change: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera became a peninsula in 1934 due to a storm-created tombolo.
- Current Status: Spain maintains full control and refuses to negotiate sovereignty with Morocco.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why does Spain still control Ceuta and Melilla?
Spain maintains that these territories are integral parts of its national territory and were not part of the protectorate relinquished to Morocco upon its independence in 1956.
What is the significance of the Treaty of Wad-Ras?
Signed in 1860 following the Hispano–Moroccan War, this treaty expanded the borders of Ceuta to their current limits.
How did Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera change from an island to a peninsula?
A huge storm in 1934 created a tombolo, which is a deposition landform that connected the island to the Moroccan mainland.
What are the current security measures at the borders?
The borders feature a doubled-fence system implemented in 2005, which includes barbed wire and extensive surveillance equipment to prevent unauthorized crossings.
What happened during the May 2021 border event?
More than 6,000 migrants crossed into Ceuta in a sudden influx, which some analysts believe was a political move by Morocco regarding the treatment of Brahim Ghali in Spain.