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Terrorism: Definitions, History, and Global Impact

Terrorism: Definitions, History, and Global Impact

In its broadest sense, terrorism is the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. While the term is most frequently used to describe intentional violence during peacetime, it also applies to attacks on non-combatants within the context of war. Because there is no universal agreement on a single definition, various interpretations emphasize different elements, such as the randomness of the attacks, the intent to instill fear, and the psychological impact on a population beyond the immediate victims.

Modern terrorism leverages fear as a strategic tool to influence decision-makers. By targeting densely populated public areas—including transportation hubs, airports, shopping centers, and tourist attractions—perpetrators aim to create widespread insecurity. This psychological manipulation is designed to undermine confidence in security measures and force policy changes.

The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burning during the September 11 attacks, planned by Osama bin Laden and carried out by al-Qaeda members in New York City on September 11, 2001
The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burning during the September 11 attacks, planned by Osama bin Laden and carried out by al-Qaeda members in New York City on September 11, 2001

Key Facts

Representation of the aftermath of the Saint Germain bombing in L'Illustration (March 19, 1892),[54] an attack that ushered in the Ère des attentats
Representation of the aftermath of the Saint Germain bombing in L'Illustration (March 19, 1892),[54] an attack that ushered in the Ère des attentats
  • Origin: The terms "terrorist" and "terrorism" emerged during the French Revolution in the late 18th century.
  • Scale: The Global Terrorism Database recorded over 61,000 non-state terrorism incidents and at least 140,000 deaths between 2000 and 2014.
  • Tactics: Suicide attacks became more prevalent from the 1980s onward, peaking in events like the September 11 attacks.
  • Resolution: According to research, the most common way terrorist groups end is through negotiation and conversion to nonviolence (43%).
  • Perception: Media coverage of terrorism often far exceeds the actual percentage of deaths caused by it compared to other causes.

The Evolution of Terrorism

Terrorism deaths
Terrorism deaths

Etymology and Early History

The concept of terrorism as a named phenomenon began with the French Revolution. However, it gained significant international attention in the 1970s, driven by conflicts such as the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Basque conflict, and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

Seal of the Jacobin Club
Seal of the Jacobin Club

Early iterations of political violence evolved into the "birth of modern terrorism" between 1850 and the 1890s, eventually leading to the diverse array of tactics seen in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Mass killings in the Vendée during the Reign of Terror in France, 1793
Mass killings in the Vendée during the Reign of Terror in France, 1793

Types of Terrorism

Terrorism is categorized based on the motivations and the nature of the perpetrators:

  • Political Terrorism: Includes sub-state terrorism, social revolutionary movements, and nationalist-separatist efforts.
  • Religious Terrorism: Driven by religious extremism, fundamentalism, or new religious movements.
  • Ideological Terrorism: Divided primarily into right-wing and left-wing (including communist) terrorism.
  • State-Related Terrorism: This includes state terrorism (violence by a government against its own people) and state-sponsored terrorism (support for non-state groups).
  • Other Forms: Criminal terrorism and pathological terrorism.

The Islamic State (IS) is a transnational Sunni Islamist insurgent and terrorist group. IS territory, in grey, at the time of its greatest territorial extent in May 2015. Map legend Islamic State Syrian government Lebanese governmentNote: Iraq and Syria contain large desert areas with sparse populations. These areas are mapped as under the control of forces holding roads and towns within them.
The Islamic State (IS) is a transnational Sunni Islamist insurgent and terrorist group. IS territory, in grey, at the time of its greatest territorial extent in May 2015. Map legend Islamic State Syrian government Lebanese governmentNote: Iraq and Syria contain large desert areas with sparse populations. These areas are mapped as under the control of forces holding roads and towns within them.

Causes and Motivations

terrorist attacks
terrorist attacks

Strategic Choice of Tactics

Groups choose terrorism as a tactic for several strategic reasons:

  1. Asymmetric Warfare: Forcing a government to meet demands when the group lacks conventional military power.
  2. Intimidation: Coercing a population into capitulating to avoid future harm.
  3. Visibility: Gaining political support and attention for a cause.
  4. Propaganda of the Deed: Directly inspiring others through revolutionary acts or indirectly provoking a hostile over-reaction from enemies to garner sympathy.

The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920, killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.[141]
The Wall Street bombing at noon on September 16, 1920, killed thirty-eight people and injured several hundred. The perpetrators were never caught.[141]

Motivating Factors

Motivations vary from broad political goals to personal grievances. Common causes include independence or separatist movements, environmental protection (eco-terrorism), the spread of a specific religion, or the desire to end perceived government oppression.

On a personal level, factors such as social isolation, previous exposure to violence, financial rewards, and the perception of profound injustice play a role. Research into "lone wolf" terrorists—individuals who act alone—reveals specific trends:

  • 43% were motivated by religious beliefs.
  • 40% were unemployed at the time of their arrest.
  • 32% had pre-existing mental health disorders.

Picture of the front of an addressed envelope to Senator Daschle.
There is speculation that the 2001 anthrax attacks were the work of a lone wolf.

Counterterrorism and Group Dissolution

Injuries from terrorist attacks
Injuries from terrorist attacks

Strategies for Prevention

Governments employ various counterterrorism strategies to mitigate threats, including:

  • Target Hardening: Physical security measures like traffic barriers or locked doors.
  • Intelligence: Increased surveillance and preemptive military or police action.
  • Legal Frameworks: Targeted laws, criminal procedures, and enhanced police powers.
  • Humanitarian Aid: Preemptive activities to address the root causes of instability.

X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.
X-ray backscatter technology (AIT) machine used by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to screen passengers. According to the TSA, this is what the remote TSA agent would see on their screen.

How Terrorist Groups End

Research by Audrey Kurth Cronin identifies six primary ways terrorist groups cease to exist:

Common Endings for Terrorist Groups
Method Description
Negotiation Entry into a legitimate political process (most common).
Repression Defeat and elimination through brute force.
Decapitation Capture or killing of the group's leadership.
Success Achievement of the group's primary aims.
Failure Group implosion or total loss of public support.
Reorientation Transition into other forms of violence.

How terrorist groups end (n = 268): The most common ending for a terrorist group is to convert to nonviolence via negotiations (43%), with most of the rest terminated by routine policing (40%). Groups that were ended by military force constituted only 7%.[174]
How terrorist groups end (n = 268): The most common ending for a terrorist group is to convert to nonviolence via negotiations (43%), with most of the rest terminated by routine policing (40%). Groups that were ended by military force constituted only 7%.[174]

Frequently Asked Questions

Terrorism deaths rate
Terrorism deaths rate
Number of failed, foiled or successful terrorist attacks by type and year within the European Union. Source: Europol.[66][67][68]
Number of failed, foiled or successful terrorist attacks by type and year within the European Union. Source: Europol.[66][67][68]
Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Approximately 35,000 Pakistanis died from terrorist attacks between 2001 and 2011.[92]
Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. Approximately 35,000 Pakistanis died from terrorist attacks between 2001 and 2011.[92]
Al-Qaeda in Maghreb members pose with weapons spelling out the Shahada.
Al-Qaeda in Maghreb members pose with weapons spelling out the Shahada.
Causes of death in the US vs media coverage. The percentage of media attention for terrorism (about 33–35%) is much greater than the percentage of deaths caused by terrorism (less than 0.01%).
Causes of death in the US vs media coverage. The percentage of media attention for terrorism (about 33–35%) is much greater than the percentage of deaths caused by terrorism (less than 0.01%).
La Terroriste, a 1910 poster depicting a female member of the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party throwing a bomb at a Russian official's car
La Terroriste, a 1910 poster depicting a female member of the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party throwing a bomb at a Russian official's car
Sign notifying shoppers of increased surveillance due to a perceived increased risk of terrorism
Sign notifying shoppers of increased surveillance due to a perceived increased risk of terrorism
Infant crying in Shanghai's South Station after the Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937
Infant crying in Shanghai's South Station after the Japanese bombing, August 28, 1937
USS Arizona (BB-39) burning during the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941
USS Arizona (BB-39) burning during the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941
Luis Posada and CORU are widely considered responsible for the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed 73 people.[197]
Luis Posada and CORU are widely considered responsible for the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed 73 people.[197]
Aftermath of the King David Hotel bombing by the Zionist militant group Irgun, July 1946
Aftermath of the King David Hotel bombing by the Zionist militant group Irgun, July 1946
President Reagan meeting with Afghan Mujahideen leaders in the Oval Office in 1983
President Reagan meeting with Afghan Mujahideen leaders in the Oval Office in 1983

What is the difference between state terrorism and state-sponsored terrorism?

State terrorism refers to violent acts committed by a government against its own citizens or people in territories it controls. State-sponsored terrorism occurs when a government provides support, funding, or sanctuary to non-state terrorist groups to attack targets abroad or domestically.

Why is there no single universal definition of terrorism?

Definitions vary because the term is often used pejoratively or politically. Different nations and organizations emphasize different aspects, such as the target (non-combatants), the intent (to instill fear), or the goal (political change).

What is "propaganda of the deed"?

Propaganda of the deed is the strategy of using a violent act to inspire others to join a cause or to provoke a government into an over-reaction, which in turn may alienate the public and drive more people toward the revolutionary cause.

How common is the use of military force to end terrorist groups?

While often the most visible response, military force is relatively uncommon as a final resolution. Research indicates that only about 7% of terrorist groups are ended by military force, whereas 43% convert to nonviolence via negotiations.

References

  1. Ganor, Boaz (2015). "Introduction to Multidimensional Warfare". Global Alert: The Rationality of Modern Islamist Terrorism and the Challenge to the Liberal Democratic World. Columbia University Press. pp. 2–3, 5–6, 14–16. doi:10.7312/gano17212. ISBN 978-0-231-53891-6. JSTOR 10.7312/gano17212.
  2. Wisnewski, J. Jeremy, ed. (2008). Torture, Terrorism, and the Use of Violence (also available as Review Journal of Political Philosophy Volume 6, Issue Number 1). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-4438-0291-8. Archived from the original on January 10, 2023. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
  3. Teichman, Jenny (October 1989). "How to Define Terrorism". Philosophy. 64 (250): 505–517. The ordinary current use of the word terrorism is much too wide. That is to say, if we list all the different phenomena which are at one time or another described as terrorism in ordinary conversation, or in ordinary newspapers, or by ordinary politicians, we will end up with a huge rag-bag of not very similar items . . The disadvantages of trying to construct an ordinary-language definition based on current usage can be seen, too, in the plethora of conflicting definitions occurring in philosophical and political literature. Thus philosophers for instance disagree about whether or not terrorism is wrong by definition or wrong just as a matter of fact; they disagree about whether terrorism should be defined in terms of its aims, or its methods, or both, or neither; they disagree about whether or not states can perpetrate terrorism; they even disagree about the importance or otherwise of terror for a definition of terrorism.
  4. Halibozek, Edward P.; Jones, Andy; Kovacich, Gerald L. (2008). The corporate security professional's handbook on terrorism (illustrated ed.). Elsevier (Butterworth-Heinemann). pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-7506-8257-2.
  5. Mackey, Robert (November 20, 2009). "Can Soldiers Be Victims of Terrorism?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Terrorism is the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, in order to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders.

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