Domestic Terrorism: Definitions, Trends, and Global Examples
Domestic terrorism, often referred to as homegrown terrorism, occurs when perpetrators target victims within their own country, sharing the same citizenship as those they attack. While the term is widely used, there is no universal global agreement on a single definition of terrorism, leading to various interpretations across different legal and political systems.
It is important to distinguish this from state terrorism, which is perpetrated by nation-states. Because the state conducting the violence typically does not view its own actions as terrorism, the legality of such acts often remains a complex grey area.
Key Facts
- Definition: In the U.S., the FBI defines domestic terrorism as acts dangerous to human life that violate criminal laws and intend to intimidate civilians or influence government policy.
- Digital Influence: As of 2009, the FBI estimated 15,000 websites and forums supported terrorist activities, with 80% hosted on U.S. servers.
- Lone Wolfs: These are individuals who operate without an organized group, driven by ideological, political, or religious goals.
- Recent Trends: FBI Director Christopher Wray noted that a majority of domestic terrorism arrests since late 2018 were linked to white supremacy.
- Global Reach: Domestic terrorism is a global phenomenon, with documented cases in the U.S., Canada, Germany, Japan, Spain, and beyond.
Defining Domestic Terrorism in the United States
In 2020, following the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020, the Department of Homeland Security and the Department of Justice (FBI) clarified the legal framework for domestic terrorism. According to 18 U.S.C. 2331(5), domestic terrorism involves activities that:
- Are dangerous to human life and violate U.S. or state criminal laws.
- Appear intended to intimidate or coerce civilian populations or influence government policy.
- Aim to affect government conduct through kidnapping, assassination, or mass destruction.
- Occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States.
The Evolution of Homegrown Threats
Security analysts suggest that since the end of the Cold War, military conflicts have shifted toward asymmetric warfare—a strategy where non-state actors use unconventional tactics, such as terror attacks, to combat more powerful opponents. This shift has led to an increase in literature and intelligence efforts to suppress homegrown plots.
The internet has played a pivotal role in this evolution. Since 2003, when Abu Musab al-Zarqawi began posting beheading videos, the volume of terrorist-supporting digital content has surged. Publications like Inspire magazine are specifically designed to "fan the flames of Jihad" and encourage radicalization remotely.
Research from the Congressional Research Service highlights a spike in jihadist-inspired plots. Between May 2009 and November 2010, law enforcement arrested individuals related to 22 such plots—a significant increase compared to the 21 plots identified in the seven years immediately following the September 11 attacks.
Lone Wolf Terrorism and Radicalization
A "lone wolf" is a perpetrator who organizes and executes an attack without the support of an organized group. These individuals typically exhibit specific characteristics:
- Willingness to use lethal violence and accept collateral damage.
- Motivations rooted in ideological, political, or religious beliefs.
- A primary goal of using homicide to send a public message.
- Generally no intent to commit suicide unless the situation necessitates it.
Radicalization can occur domestically or through foreign travel. Some individuals travel to regions like Pakistan, Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen, or Somalia for training. For example, the operational leader of the London Underground bombers received explosives training in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Similarly, the Al-Shabaab group in Somalia recruited Somali-Americans from Minneapolis and St. Paul, indicating that recruitment infrastructures can exist within the U.S.
Global Examples of Domestic Terrorism
| Region/Country | Example Event | Context/Group |
|---|---|---|
| United States | Oklahoma City Bombing (1995) | Timothy McVeigh |
| Germany | Red Army Faction (1970-1998) | Left-wing militancy |
| Japan | Tokyo subway sarin attack (1995) | Cult-based attack |
| Spain | ETA terrorism (1959-2018) | Basque separatism |
| Canada | Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu attack (2014) | Radicalized citizen |
| Nigeria | Baga massacre (2013) | Boko Haram / Military dispute |
United States Case Studies
The U.S. has a long history of domestic attacks, ranging from the 1864 St. Albans Raid by Confederate agents to the 1873 Colfax Massacre involving the Ku Klux Klan. In the 20th and 21st centuries, attacks have included the 1920 Wall Street bombing, the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing.
More recent incidents include the 2009 Fort Hood shooting, the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, and the 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. Law enforcement continues to monitor threats from various ideologies, including neo-Nazi groups and far-right militias, such as the Wolverine Watchmen involved in the 2020 Gretchen Whitmer kidnapping plot.
International Perspectives
In Germany, the Red Army Faction and the National Socialist Underground represent different ends of the ideological spectrum. In Japan, the 1995 sarin gas attack and the 2022 assassination of Shinzo Abe illustrate the variety of domestic threats. In Europe, the murder of Theo van Gogh in the Netherlands (2004) and the 2017 Finsbury Park mosque attack in the UK highlight the impact of radicalization.
In Africa, Boko Haram in Nigeria and Al-Shabaab in Somalia have carried out numerous domestic attacks, including the 2009 Beledweyne bombing which killed the Somali security minister.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between domestic and state terrorism?
Domestic terrorism is carried out by citizens against their own country or fellow citizens. State terrorism is perpetrated by a nation-state against individuals or groups, often viewed as legal or necessary by the state conducting it.
What defines a "lone wolf" terrorist?
A lone wolf is an individual who acts alone or with very few accomplices, without being part of an organized terrorist group, to achieve ideological, political, or religious goals through violence.
How does the internet contribute to domestic terrorism?
The internet facilitates radicalization through the spread of extremist propaganda, the hosting of recruitment forums, and the distribution of training materials, allowing individuals to be radicalized without ever leaving their homes.
What are the primary drivers of domestic terrorism in the U.S. recently?
According to FBI Director Christopher Wray, a significant and pervasive threat in recent years has been white supremacy, which has been linked to the majority of domestic terrorism arrests since October 2018.
Do domestic terrorists always seek to commit suicide?
No. Unlike some forms of international terrorism, lone wolf domestic terrorists typically intend to commit homicide to spread their message and do not necessarily intend to commit suicide unless the situation requires it.