1890 United States Census: The End of the Frontier and the Dawn of Data Processing

Beginning on June 2, 1890, the United States conducted its eleventh national census, a landmark event that captured a nation in the midst of rapid urban growth and technological transition. The 1890 census determined the resident population of the United States to be 62,979,766, representing a 25.5 percent increase over the 50,189,209 people enumerated in 1880.

Beyond simple numbers, this census provided a snapshot of a changing American identity. It marked the first time a majority of states recorded populations exceeding one million and the first time three major cities—New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia—surpassed the one-million-person mark. Notably, Chicago rose to become the second-most populous city in the nation, a rank it held until 1990.

Key Facts

• Total Population: 62,979,766 (a 25.5% increase from 1880).
• Technological First: First U.S. census to use machines for data tabulation.
• Urban Milestones: New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia all exceeded 1 million residents.
• Frontier Status: Officially declared the disappearance of the American frontier.
• Data Loss: Most original records were destroyed by fire in 1921 and subsequent government orders.

The Hollerith Revolution: Mechanizing the Census

The 1890 census was a turning point in information technology. Under the oversight of Superintendents Robert P. Porter and Carroll D. Wright, the Census Bureau adopted methods invented by Herman Hollerith. For the first time, data was entered onto punched cards—a machine-readable medium—and processed using electromechanical tabulators.

This shift in methodology drastically improved efficiency. While the 1880 census took eight years to process, the 1890 census was completed in just six. A rough "family count" of 62,947,714 was announced after only six weeks of processing, though this initial figure was met with public disbelief, as many believed the population had already reached 75 million.

Closing the American Frontier

One of the most significant sociological findings of the 1890 census was the announcement that the frontier region of the United States no longer existed. The Census Bureau released a bulletin stating that unsettled areas had been so broken up by isolated settlements that a distinct frontier line could no longer be tracked.

This finding signaled a fundamental shift in American expansion. While the Bureau stopped tracking the frontier line, historians later noted that westward migration could still be observed by plotting the mean center of the U.S. population in subsequent censuses.

Demographics and Data Collection

The 1890 census was exhaustive, collecting detailed personal and socioeconomic data. In addition to basic names, ages, and addresses, the census asked about:

• Military Service: Whether the person was a Union or Confederate soldier, sailor, or Marine during the American Civil War.
• Race: Categories included white, black, mulatto, quadroon, octoroon, Chinese, Japanese, or Indian.
• Health: Information on acute or chronic diseases, as well as defects in mind, sight, hearing, or speech.
• Economic Status: Profession, months of unemployment, and whether homes or farms were owned or rented (and if they were mortgage-free).
• Literacy: Ability to read, write, and speak English.

The data revealed a decline in the recorded Native American population, which dropped to 248,253 from the 400,764 identified in 1850. Additionally, contemporary statisticians argued that the census likely undercounted African Americans, working-class individuals, and young children by one to several million people.

The Tragedy of Lost Records

Despite the technological leap in collecting the data, the preservation of the 1890 census was a failure. On January 10, 1921, a fire broke out in the Commerce Department building in Washington, D.C., damaging the population schedules. While estimates of the initial damage vary from 15% to 75%, the event sparked a public outcry for a permanent National Archives.

The loss was finalized in the 1930s. In 1932, the Bureau of the Census listed the surviving 1890 schedules for destruction. The Librarian of Congress did not request to retain them for historical purposes, and by 1935, the remaining original records were destroyed by government order. Today, only aggregate data for small areas and very few sets of microdata survive.

Census Summary: 1890 Population Highlights

Summary of 1890 Census Results

Category	Detail/Value
Total U.S. Population	62,979,766
Population Growth (since 1880)	25.5%
Most Populous State	New York (6,003,174)
Least Populous State	Nevada (47,335)
Top 3 Cities (>1 Million)	New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia
Native American Population	248,253

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is so much of the 1890 census data missing?

Most of the original records were damaged in a 1921 fire at the Department of Commerce building. The remaining damaged records were later destroyed by government order between 1934 and 1935 after the Librarian of Congress declined to retain them.

How did Herman Hollerith change the census process?

Hollerith introduced the use of punched cards and electromechanical tabulators. This allowed the Census Bureau to process data much faster, reducing the total processing time from eight years (in 1880) to six years.

What did the "closing of the frontier" mean?

It meant that settlement in the American West had reached a population density where there was no longer a clear, continuous line separating settled areas from unsettled wilderness.

Which cities were the largest in 1890?

New York City was the largest (1,515,301), followed by Chicago (1,099,850) and Philadelphia (1,046,964). This was the first census where three cities exceeded one million residents.

Was the 1890 population count considered accurate?

While the official count was 62,979,766, statisticians of the time believed it was an undercount of one to several million people, particularly among children, the working class, and African Americans.