Underclass Sociology: Definitions, Origins, and Controversies

In the study of social stratification, the underclass refers to the segment of a population occupying the lowest possible position in a class hierarchy. Positioned below the core body of the working class, this group is typically characterized as being socially and economically cut off from the rest of society.

While the concept of a population existing beneath the working class has long roots in social science—such as the concept of the lumpenproletariat—the specific term "underclass" gained prominence in the latter half of the 20th century. It was first popularized by American social scientists studying poverty and subsequently adopted by journalists to describe systemic marginalization.

Key Facts

• Definition: A socio-economic group below the working class, often isolated from mainstream society.
• Origins: Popularized in the 1960s by Gunnar Myrdal to describe the unemployed and "unemployables."
• Focus Areas: Academic definitions generally focus on economics, spatial location (urban ghettos), or behavioral patterns.
• Demographics: While most visible in urban slums and disproportionately nonwhite, the underclass also includes rural and white populations, particularly in the American South and Appalachia.
• Controversy: Critics argue the term is derogatory and oversimplifies a diverse group of people.

The Evolution of the Underclass Concept

Early Proponents and History

Gunnar Myrdal is widely credited as the first to champion the term in the early 1960s. He described the underclass as a group of unemployed or underemployed individuals who were "hopelessly set apart" from the nation's ambitions and achievements. This mirrored earlier efforts by figures like Henry Mayhew, who documented the "invisible world" of street people and casual workers in London.

Diverse Academic Perspectives

Social scientists have approached the definition of the underclass through three primary lenses:

• Economic Focus: Some theorists, such as Erik Olin Wright, distinguish the underclass from the working class by arguing that the underclass lacks the labor power that higher classes typically exploit.
• Spatial Focus: Urban sociology often uses "underclass" and "urban underclass" interchangeably. William Julius Wilson, in works like The Truly Disadvantaged, defines the group as a massive population at the bottom of the social ladder, plagued by low-paying jobs and poor education, specifically within the American rust belt's post-civil rights ghettos.
• Behavioral Focus: Lawrence M. Mead defines the underclass through a lens of behavioral deficiency, suggesting that low income and serious behavioral difficulties often coexist.

Categorizations and Characteristics

Journalist Ken Auletta brought the term into the public consciousness by subcategorizing the American underclass into four distinct groups:

1. The passive poor: Primarily long-term welfare recipients.
2. Hostile street criminals: Often drug addicts or school dropouts.
3. Hustlers: Individuals operating in an underground economy who may not be strictly poor.
4. The traumatized: Including the homeless, drifters, and released mental patients.

Sociologists Joel Rogers and James D. Wright further organize these characteristics into four general themes: economic, social-psychological, behavioral, and ecological (spatial concentration).

Summary of Underclass Theoretical Perspectives

Theorist/Author	Primary Focus	Key Driver/Definition
Gunnar Myrdal	Economic/Social	Unemployed and "unemployables" set apart from national life.
William Julius Wilson	Spatial/Structural	Poor education and low-paying jobs in urban ghettos.
Lawrence M. Mead	Behavioral	Combination of poverty and behavioral dysfunction.
Massey & Denton	Institutional	Racial residential segregation and institutional racism.
Ken Auletta	Typological	Four groups: passive poor, criminals, hustlers, and traumatized.

Causes and Proposed Solutions

Structural and Racial Factors

While William Julius Wilson emphasized the structural transformation of the economy, sociologists Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton argued in American Apartheid that racial residential segregation is a critical factor. They posit that institutionalized racism in banking and real estate confined income loss to racially homogenous neighborhoods, creating a disproportionately black urban underclass.

Alternative Solutions

Ken Auletta proposed three typologies for addressing the issue: the "wholesale option," the "laissez-faire option," and the "retail option." Meanwhile, journalist Nicholas Lemann suggested the underclass was created by two specific migrations: the Great Migration of Southern blacks to the North and West, and the subsequent exodus of the black middle class from ghettos between the 1970s and 1990s.

Critiques and Modern Terminology

The use of the term "underclass" has faced significant academic backlash. Critics argue that the word is a homogenizing term that simplifies a diverse group of people into a single category. Furthermore, many contend that the language is derogatory and serves to demonize the urban poor.

In response, some scholars have adopted replacement terms. William Julius Wilson, for instance, began using the term "ghetto poor" in the early 1990s to shift the framing of inner-city poverty toward its structural roots rather than individual failings.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between the working class and the underclass?

The working class generally possesses labor power that is utilized (and often exploited) by higher classes. The underclass, however, is positioned below the working class and is often viewed as being cut off from the labor market and mainstream society entirely.

Is the underclass exclusively an urban phenomenon?

No. While the term is most frequently used in urban sociology to describe city slums, the underclass also includes rural populations, particularly in the American South and Appalachia.

Why is the term "underclass" considered controversial?

Critics argue that it is a derogatory term that demonizes the poor and incorrectly treats a heterogeneous group of people with different struggles as a single, uniform mass.

How did racial segregation contribute to the urban underclass?

According to Massey and Denton, institutional racism in real estate and banking led to high levels of racial segregation. This meant that when the economy shifted and manufacturing declined, the resulting poverty was trapped within specific, racially homogenous neighborhoods.

Who first popularized the term underclass?

Gunnar Myrdal is generally credited as the first proponent of the term in the early 1960s, though the general idea of a class below the proletariat has existed in social sciences for much longer.