Tokelauan Complementizers and Sentence Binding
In the Tokelauan language, complementizers—words used to introduce a complement clause—play a vital role in structuring meaning and relationship between ideas. These markers allow speakers to distinguish between factual statements, purposes, necessities, and sequences, while adhering to a complex system of grammatical binding.
Types of Complementizers in Tokelauan
Tokelauan utilizes four primary complementizers: pe, ke, oi, and ona. These are categorized based on whether they introduce indicative or non-indicative complements.
Indicative Complements: Pe
The complementizer pe is used specifically for indicative complements, which are typically found in sentences pertaining to knowledge or beliefs. For example, in the sentence "Ko taku fakatatau lava pe na maua lava te vaiaho" (My guess was that a full week had passed), pe marks the factual nature of the guess.
[ไม่มีภาพประกอบ]Non-Indicative Complements: Ke, Ona, and Oi
Non-indicative complements are used for meanings other than direct statements of fact. Tokelauan employs three different markers depending on the intent of the sentence:
- Ke: Used for sentences pertaining to purpose. An example is "Kua fiu foki ke -iru-au a!" ([They] were tired of trying to get me to drink).
- Ona: Used for phasal, modal, and commentative predicates. This is seen in sentences regarding necessity, such as "Kua tatau ono fai he fale" (It had become necessary to acquire a house).
- Oi: Used for items of sequence. For instance, "Kuo toeitiiti oi nofo mai te fetū tēia" (Very soon that star will be in the ascendant).
The Binding Hierarchy and Sentence Systematics
Beyond the choice of word, Tokelauan follows a strict bonding hierarchy between the complement and the rest of the sentence. Based on research by Hooper and Givón, the strength of the bond is determined by the main verb. In this inverse relationship, the higher the strength of the main verb on the binding scale, the less likely the complement will appear as a separate, independent clause.
Four Elements of the Binding System
There are four key semantic elements that determine how tightly a complement is bound to the main clause:
- Subject/Agent Case Marking: As the main verb's binding strength increases, the subject or agent of the complement is less likely to show the case-marking characteristics typical of a main clause subject.
- Verb Modalities: Higher binding strength in the main verb reduces the likelihood that the complement verb will display the standard tense-aspect-modality (TAM) markings of a main-clause verb.
- Fusion or Co-lexicalization: Co-lexicalization occurs when two words merge into one. The higher the main verb is on the binding scale, the more likely the complement verb is to co-lexicalize with the main verb.
- Separation: A higher binding strength makes it less likely that a subordinating morpheme (a word element that introduces a subordinate clause) will separate the complement from the main clause.
Key Facts
- Tokelauan uses four complementizers: pe, ke, oi, and ona.
- Pe is the only complementizer used for indicative (knowledge-based) complements.
- Ke, oi, and ona are reserved for non-indicative purposes (purpose, sequence, and modal predicates).
- The binding hierarchy dictates that stronger main verbs lead to more integrated (less separate) complement clauses.
- Binding strength affects case marking, verb modalities, co-lexicalization, and clause separation.
| Complementizer | Type | Primary Usage |
|---|---|---|
| pe | Indicative | Knowledge and beliefs |
| ke | Non-Indicative | Purpose |
| ona | Non-Indicative | Phasal, modal, and commentative predicates |
| oi | Non-Indicative | Items of sequence |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is a complementizer in Tokelauan?
A complementizer is a functional word used to introduce a complement clause, helping to define the relationship between the main clause and the subordinate information.
Which complementizer is used for factual knowledge?
The complementizer pe is used for indicative complements, which pertain to knowledge.
How does the binding scale affect the complement clause?
The binding scale works inversely: the stronger the main verb is on the scale, the more the complement clause merges with the main clause, making it less likely to appear as a separate entity.
What is co-lexicalization in the context of Tokelauan binding?
Co-lexicalization refers to the process where the complement verb and the main verb fuse together. This is more likely to happen when the main verb has a high position on the binding scale.
What is the difference between ke and oi?
While both are non-indicative, ke is used to express purpose, whereas oi is used to indicate items of sequence.