Labor Union History: From the NLU to the Rise of Industrial Unionism
The evolution of organized labor in the United States is a story of shifting strategies, ideological clashes, and the persistent struggle for worker rights. From the early attempts at national coordination to the militant rise of industrial unionism, the movement has transitioned between top-down leadership and grassroots activism to combat exploitation and improve working conditions.
The National Labor Union and Early Challenges
The National Labor Union (NLU) emerged as an early attempt to organize workers on a national scale, boasting half a million members by 1869. However, the organization was plagued by internal divisions, particularly regarding race. While the NLU recognized that Black workers were capable of unionizing and were actively striking in the South, the organization often evaded the issue of racial integration during its conventions.
The NLU also exhibited contradictory stances on immigration. While it supported the Anti-Coolie Act of 1862 in California, it simultaneously approved the voluntary emigration of Chinese workers. This tension peaked in 1870 when Chinese workers were used as strike breakers in a Massachusetts shoe factory, forcing the NLU to confront its position on "coolie" labor and immigration.
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The Rise and Fall of the Knights of Labor
Unlike the top-down structure of the NLU, the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor (KOL) was a grassroots movement. Founded in 1869 as a secret society to protect members from blacklists and labor spies, the KOL grew rapidly. Its membership surged from 100,000 to over 700,000 following a victory over railroad industrialist Jay Gould in 1885.
The KOL attracted a vast number of unskilled and semi-skilled workers who held strong anti-employer sentiments. However, the organization's influence waned following a series of failed strikes and the political backlash resulting from the Haymarket Riot on May 4, 1886. The KOL leadership attempted to distance itself from the violence of Haymarket, but the combination of poor leadership and external pressure led to its eventual decline.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) and Business Unionism
As the Knights of Labor faltered, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (FOOTALU) evolved into the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1886. Led by figures like Samuel Gompers, the AFL adopted a more conservative approach known as business unionism, focusing on practical gains such as wages and hours rather than broad social revolution.
The AFL focused on skilled craft unions, often creating a "labor aristocracy" that separated skilled workers from the unskilled. While the AFL survived the Haymarket backlash and grew significantly—particularly after the Coal Strike of 1902—it was often criticized for its conservatism and its failure to support unskilled workers, such as steelworkers during their 1901 strike.
The Shift Toward Industrial Unionism
Industrial unionism advocates for organizing all workers in an industry into one union, regardless of their specific skill or craft. This movement gained momentum through the American Railway Union (ARU), launched by Eugene V. Debs. Debs, once a conservative leader, concluded that craft unions were too weak to face big business. The ARU grew rapidly, reaching 150,000 members by its second convention.
Militancy in Mining and the WFM
The Western Federation of Miners (WFM) represented the most militant wing of this movement. By 1901, the WFM called for the abolition of the wage system and a complete revolution of social and economic conditions. This stood in stark contrast to the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA), which, despite its industrial structure, moved toward collective bargaining and respectability under John Mitchell.
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The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and "One Big Union"
The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), or the "Wobblies," was formed to counter the unification of capital (the rise of trusts) with a unified organization of the entire working class. The IWW championed the One Big Union concept: the idea that all wage workers should join a single, powerful organization to win a general victory over capital.
The IWW was highly effective in organizing the northwest timber industry and agricultural workers, signing up 100,000 farm workers by 1917. However, its revolutionary stance and use of the general strike made it a target of government repression during World War I.
The WIIU and Ideological Splits
Internal conflicts led to a split within the IWW. The Socialist Labor Party (SLP) broke away to form the Workers' International Industrial Union (WIIU) in 1915. While the "Red IWW" (Chicago) became more quasi-anarchistic and non-political, the "Yellow IWW" (WIIU) maintained close ties to the SLP and advocated for political action alongside industrial struggle.
Key Facts
- NLU: Early national union that struggled with racial divisions and immigration contradictions.
- Knights of Labor: A grassroots secret society that peaked after the 1885 railroad victory but collapsed after the Haymarket Riot.
- AFL: Focused on skilled craft unions and "business unionism," prioritizing wages and hours over social revolution.
- Industrial Unionism: The strategy of organizing all workers in an industry (e.g., ARU, WFM) rather than by specific craft.
- IWW: Promoted the "One Big Union" concept to unify the entire working class against capital.
- One Big Union: A strategy to create a labor organization large enough to achieve a general victory over the capitalist system.
| Organization | Primary Focus | Organizational Style | Key Ideology |
|---|---|---|---|
| National Labor Union (NLU) | National Coordination | Top-Down | Early Labor Rights |
| Knights of Labor (KOL) | Broad Worker Inclusion | Grassroots/Secret | Anti-Employer/Reformist |
| American Federation of Labor (AFL) | Skilled Craft Workers | Federation of Unions | Business Unionism |
| Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) | All Wage Workers | Industrial Unionism | Revolutionary/One Big Union |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between craft unionism and industrial unionism?
Craft unionism, practiced by the AFL, organizes workers based on their specific skill or trade (e.g., printers or carpenters). Industrial unionism, practiced by the IWW and ARU, organizes all workers within a single industry regardless of their specific job or skill level.
What was the "One Big Union" concept?
The "One Big Union" was an IWW strategy proposing that all wage earners join one massive organization. The goal was to create a force powerful enough to fight for better conditions and eventually win a general victory over the capitalist system.
How did the Haymarket Riot affect labor unions?
The Haymarket Riot of 1886 triggered a severe political backlash against labor organizations. It contributed to the decline of the Knights of Labor, as the organization tried to distance itself from the violence to survive the resulting public hostility.
Who was Eugene V. Debs and why was he important?
Eugene V. Debs was a railway labor leader who founded the American Railway Union (ARU). He is significant for shifting from conservative craft-based leadership to advocating for industrial unionism, believing that only a unified workforce could successfully challenge big business.
What was the role of the WIIU?
The Workers' International Industrial Union (WIIU) was a split from the IWW, formed by the Socialist Labor Party. Unlike the more anarchistic Red IWW, the WIIU advocated for a combination of political action and industrial organization.