Khitan Language: The Lost Tongue of the Liao Empire
The Khitan language (also known as Kitan or Liao) was once the dominant voice of Northeast Asia, spoken by the Khitan people from the 4th to the 13th century CE. As the official language of the powerful Liao Empire (907–1125) and the later Qara Khitai (1124–1218), it served as a primary tool of administration and culture across vast territories including northeastern China, southeastern Mongolia, and eastern Siberia.
Despite its historical significance, Khitan is now an extinct language. It is believed to have vanished from literary use around 1244 following the death of Yelü Chucai, the last known individual capable of speaking and writing the tongue. Today, linguists struggle to fully reconstruct the language due to a limited corpus of surviving words and scripts that remain only partially deciphered.
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Key Facts
- Status: Extinct since approximately 1244 CE.
- Region: Northern and Eastern Asia (China, Mongolia, Siberia).
- Classification: Likely a Para-Mongolic language.
- Writing Systems: Utilized two distinct systems: the Khitan large script and the Khitan small script.
- Official Use: State language of the Liao Empire and Qara Khitai.
Linguistic Classification
The classification of Khitan is a subject of ongoing scholarly debate. While it is clearly related to the Mongolic languages, linguist Juha Janhunen suggests it may be a Para-Mongolic language—a category for languages that are radically different from historically known Mongolic tongues while still sharing a common ancestor.
Further complexity is added by the presence of Koreanic loanwords. Alexander Vovin (2017) argues that these borrowings likely occurred because both the Khitan Liao dynasty and the Korean Goryeo dynasty claimed succession from the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo.
The Khitan Writing Systems
The Khitan people employed two mutually exclusive writing systems to record their language:
- Khitan Large Script: A logographic system, similar in nature to Chinese characters.
- Khitan Small Script: A syllabary (a set of written symbols that represent the syllables of a language). This script remained in use until 1191, when the Jurchen-speaking Jin dynasty replaced it with the Jurchen script.
Historical Records and Decipherment
For centuries, Khitan records were scarce. Before the 19th century, the only known text was the Langjun inscription, which scholars of the Ming and Qing dynasties mistakenly identified as Jurchen.
A critical resource for modern linguists is the 14th-century History of Liao. Chapter 116 contains a volume titled the "Glossary of National Language" (Guoyu jie), which provides Khitan words transcribed using Chinese characters. Interestingly, the term Guoyu (National Language) was a common designation used by various non-Han dynasties—including the Manchu, Jurchen, and Xianbei—to refer to their own native tongues.
Decipherment has been hindered by historical errors. For example, the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty incorrectly linked the Khitan language to the Solon language, leading to inaccurate "corrections" of Khitan names in imperial records.
Vocabulary and Comparisons
Analysis of closed lexical systems reveals strong similarities between Khitan and Mongolic languages, particularly in basic categories such as numbers, nature, and family.
| Category | Khitan Word | English Translation | Modern Mongolian | Daur |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Seasons | heu.ur | Spring | havar | haor |
| Numerals | tau | Five | tav / tavan | taawu |
| Animals | mo.ri | Horse | mori | uni |
| Directions | ud.ur | East | dorno | garkui |
| Time | suni | Night | shönö | suni |
| Relations | n.ai.ci | Friend | naiz | naiz |
Social and Administrative Terms
Khitan vocabulary also provides insight into their societal structure. The term mingan referred to a military unit of a thousand, while k.em denoted a decree. Additionally, the term zhao-ding is believed to relate to the jad institution found in nomadic cultures, where individuals were categorized as either uruh (kinsman/descendant) or jad (stranger/foreigner).
Frequently Asked Questions
When did the Khitan language become extinct?
The language is considered extinct in its literary form by 1244 CE, following the death of Yelü Chucai, the last known person capable of speaking and writing it.
What is the difference between the large and small Khitan scripts?
The large script was logographic, meaning symbols represented words or morphemes (similar to Chinese), while the small script was a syllabary, where symbols represented specific syllables.
Is Khitan the same as Mongolian?
No, but it is closely related. Many linguists classify it as a Para-Mongolic language, meaning it shares a common ancestor with Mongolic languages but diverged significantly.
How do we know what Khitan words meant?
Most of our knowledge comes from the "Glossary of National Language" in the History of Liao, where Khitan words were transcribed into Chinese characters, and through comparisons with related languages like Mongolian and Daur.
Did Khitan have influence from other languages?
Yes, evidence suggests the presence of Koreanic loanwords, likely borrowed from the language of Goguryeo due to the shared political claims of the Liao and Goryeo dynasties.