Irish Americans: A History of Migration, Struggle, and Cultural Influence

The story of Irish Americans is one of the most defining narratives of the United States' immigrant experience. From the early colonial arrivals to the massive waves of the 19th century, people of Irish descent have shaped the political, social, and cultural landscape of America. Today, millions of Americans claim this heritage, reflecting a journey from marginalized outsiders to influential citizens.

According to the 2020 census, approximately 38.6 million people claim full or partial Irish ancestry, while about 10.9 million identify as having full Irish ancestry. This vast diaspora is spread across every state, with particularly strong concentrations in the Northeast.

Distribution of Irish Americans according to the 2000 Census

Key Facts

"Leacht Cuimhneacháin na nGael", Irish famine memorial located on Penn's Landing, Philadelphia

Population: Over 38 million Americans claim full or partial Irish ancestry (2020 Census).
Early Migration: The "Scotch-Irish" (Ulster Scots) arrived in significant numbers between the 17th and mid-19th centuries.
Peak Immigration: The highest volume of immigration occurred between 1841 and 1860, totaling over 1.6 million people.
Religion: The community is primarily divided between Catholicism and Protestantism.
Political Impact: Irish Americans have reached the highest levels of government, including the U.S. Supreme Court and the Presidency.

Waves of Immigration

Thomas Ambrose Butler, an Irish Catholic priest, was a leading voice in urging Irish immigrants to colonize Kansas

The Scotch-Irish and Early Settlers

Long before the mid-19th century, the Scotch-Irish—Protestants from the province of Ulster—settled in the American colonies. By 1790, they represented a significant portion of the population in states like Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina. These early settlers often established themselves in the backcountry, contributing to the frontier expansion of the early United States.

Charles Carroll, the sole Catholic signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, was the descendant of Irish nobility in County Tipperary. Signers Matthew Thornton, George Taylor were born in Ireland and were "Ulster" Scots, while Thomas Lynch Jr., for example, was Protestant; he was of Irish ancestry and retained a strong Irish identity.

The Great Famine and the 19th Century Surge

The mid-19th century marked a turning point with the arrival of millions of Irish Catholics fleeing the Great Famine. Between 1841 and 1850, 780,719 immigrants arrived, followed by 914,119 between 1851 and 1860. This period saw a shift in the demographic profile of Irish immigrants, who often arrived with few resources and settled in urban centers like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia.

Gravestone in Boston Catholic cemetery erected in memory of County Roscommon native born shortly before the Great Famine

Immigration continued in waves through the early 20th century. While numbers fluctuated, the period between 1921 and 1930 saw another peak with 220,591 arrivals, before declining sharply during the 1930s.

Concentration of people born in Ireland in 1870 Census

Societal Challenges and Discrimination

U.S. President Grover Cleveland twisting the tail of the British Lion as Americans cheer in the Venezuelan crisis of 1895; cartoon in Puck by J.S. Pughe

Nativism and Stereotypes

The influx of Irish Catholics triggered a backlash from Nativists—native-born Americans who opposed immigration for religious or political reasons. This hostility manifested in violent riots, such as the 1844 anti-Catholic riots in Philadelphia and the Orange riots of 1871 in New York City.

St. Augustine's Church on fire. Anti-Irish, anti-Catholic Nativist riots in Philadelphia in 1844.

The Orange riot of 1871 as depicted in Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper. The view is at 25th Street in Manhattan looking south down Eighth Avenue.

Discrimination was also systemic. The slogan "No Irish Need Apply" (NINA) appeared in job advertisements and songs, signaling the exclusion of Irish immigrants from many employment opportunities.

1862 song that used the "No Irish Need Apply" slogan. It was copied from a similar London song.[273]

New York Times want ad 1854—the only New York Times ad with NINA for men.

Cultural stereotypes further marginalized the community. Political cartoons of the era often depicted the Irish as drunken, violent, or uncivilized troublemakers compared to other immigrant groups.

American political cartoon by Thomas Nast titled "The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things", depicting a drunken Irishman lighting a powder keg and swinging a bottle. Published 2 September 1871 in Harper's Weekly

1882 illustration from Puck depicting Irish immigrants as troublemakers, as compared to those of other nationalities

Integration and Contribution

Military and Public Service

Military service became a primary vehicle for assimilation. During the American Civil War, the Irish served in large numbers, most notably in the 69th New York Volunteer Regiment. Other conflicts, such as the Mexican-American War, also saw Irish involvement, though sometimes in complex roles, such as the Saint Patrick's Battalion who joined the Mexican army.

Officers and men of the Irish-Catholic 69th New York Volunteer Regiment attend church services at Fort Corcoran in 1861.

The mass hanging of Irish Catholic soldiers who joined the Mexican army

Over time, Irish Americans moved into essential public service roles, becoming prominent in local government, teaching, and particularly in police and fire departments in major cities.

Politics and the Judiciary

The political ascent of Irish Americans was gradual but decisive. Al Smith became the first Irish Catholic nominee of a major political party for President in 1928. The judiciary also saw significant Irish influence, with numerous justices serving on the U.S. Supreme Court, including William J. Brennan and Anthony Kennedy.

1928 Democratic Presidential Nominee Al Smith was the first Irish Catholic nominee of a major political party.

Cultural Legacy

Irish immigrants in Kansas City, Missouri, c. 1909

Sports and Entertainment

Irish Americans have left an indelible mark on American sports and entertainment. From the early days of boxing with stars like "Gentleman Jim" Corbett and John L. Sullivan to the founding of sports traditions, the influence is widespread. The Boston Celtics and the Philadelphia Phillies' tradition of wearing green on St. Patrick's Day are enduring symbols of this heritage.

Two Irish stars: "Gentleman Jim" Corbett licks John L. Sullivan in 1892

Logo of the Boston Celtics basketball team

The Philadelphia Phillies started the tradition of wearing green uniforms on St. Patrick's day.

In modern entertainment, the lineage continues through figures such as actor Tom Cruise, who descends from paternal Irish roots in County Dublin.

Actor Tom Cruise descends from paternal Irish ("Cruise" and "O'Mara") lineage around County Dublin.[312][313]

Traditions and Identity

St. Patrick's Day has evolved from a religious feast into a massive cultural celebration. One of the most famous modern expressions of this is the dyeing of the Chicago River green.

The Chicago River, dyed green for the 2005 St. Patrick's Day celebration

Today, the sense of heritage is maintained through murals, cultural institutes, and community organizations, ensuring that the history of the Irish diaspora remains visible in the American landscape.

Irish Republican mural in South Boston, Massachusetts

Demographic Summary

Period	Number of Immigrants	Period	Number of Immigrants
1820–1830	54,338	1911–1920	146,181
1831–1840	207,381	1921–1930	220,591
1841–1850	780,719	1931–1940	13,167
1851–1860	914,119	1941–1950	26,967
1861–1870	435,778	1951–1960	57,332
1871–1880	436,871	1961–1970	37,461
1881–1890	655,482	1971–1975	6,559
1891–1900	388,416	Total	4,720,427
1901–1910	399,065

Frequently Asked Questions

Who were the Scotch-Irish?

The Scotch-Irish, also known as Ulster Scots, were Protestant settlers from the province of Ulster in Ireland who migrated to the American colonies primarily between the 17th and mid-19th centuries.

What was the "No Irish Need Apply" (NINA) phenomenon?

NINA refers to discriminatory job advertisements and social attitudes in the 19th century that explicitly excluded Irish immigrants from employment, reflecting the Nativist prejudices of the time.

How many people in the U.S. claim Irish ancestry?

According to the 2020 census, approximately 38,597,428 people claim full or partial Irish ancestry.

Which U.S. states have the highest percentage of Irish Americans?

Based on 2020 data, New Hampshire (20.58%), Massachusetts (19.71%), and Rhode Island (17.21%) are among the states with the highest percentages of the population claiming Irish ancestry.

Who was the first Irish Catholic to be nominated for President by a major party?

Al Smith was the first Irish Catholic nominee of a major political party for the U.S. Presidency in 1928.