Redbird Smith and the Resistance to the Dawes Act
In the late 19th century, the United States government implemented policies designed to fundamentally alter the social and economic structures of Native American tribes. Central to this effort was the Dawes Act, a piece of legislation that sought to replace communal land ownership with individual allotments. This shift was intended to force Native Americans into the European-American model of subsistence farming, effectively dismantling tribal cohesion.
Amidst this pressure, Redbird Smith emerged as a pivotal leader. Smith dedicated his life to political resistance, advocating for a return to traditional Cherokee religious nationalism and the preservation of ancestral values against the tide of forced assimilation.
The Impact of the Dawes Commission
To execute the Dawes Act, the government established the Dawes Commission. This body was tasked with registering tribal members to identify heads of households, who would then receive specific allotments of land. The strategy had a dual purpose: it broke the communal bond of the tribe and created "surplus" lands. Any land not allotted to individuals was declared surplus and sold by the U.S. government, often to non-native buyers.
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Redbird Smith's Political Leadership
Redbird Smith did not remain passive in the face of these changes. His leadership spanned several decades and various roles within the Cherokee community. In 1887 and 1889, he served as a tribal councilor representing the Illinois District of the Cherokee Nation.
Smith's philosophy was rooted in a deep belief in a divine design for the Cherokee people. He argued that the intelligence, industry, and spirituality of his people were intended for a specific mission on earth. For Smith, pride in ancestral heritage was not merely about the past, but was the essential incentive for providing a worthwhile legacy for future generations.
The Nighthawk Keetoowahs and Land Claims
Smith's activism extended to the preservation of cultural artifacts and the pursuit of legal land rights. He worked to repatriate wampum belts—traditional beaded belts used for recording treaties and historical events—back to his tribe. His leadership within the Nighthawk Keetoowahs grew from serving as chairman to being selected as their chief in 1910.
In 1910, Smith and other Nighthawks traveled to Mexico, carrying a document from 1820 to support Cherokee land claims based on previous residency. However, the Mexican government did not support these claims.
The Struggle for a Reservation
In 1914, Smith petitioned President Woodrow Wilson to establish a Keetoowah reservation. The U.S. government rejected this request, asserting that the creation of reservations hindered the government's official policy of assimilation, which aimed to integrate Native Americans into mainstream American society.
Despite this setback, Smith's vision for a traditional community persisted. In 1921, 100 Cherokee individuals from 35 families moved to the southeastern corner of Cherokee County, Oklahoma. This effort to create a traditional community was the direct brainchild of Redbird Smith.
Key Facts
- The Dawes Act aimed to convert communal tribal lands into individual allotments for subsistence farming.
- Surplus lands created by the Dawes Act were sold by the U.S. government to non-natives.
- Redbird Smith served as a tribal councilor for the Illinois District of the Cherokee Nation in 1887 and 1889.
- The Nighthawk Keetoowahs appointed Smith as their chief in 1910.
- Land claims in Mexico were pursued in 1910 using an 1820 document but were unsuccessful.
- The 1921 community in Cherokee County, Oklahoma, consisted of 100 people from 35 families.
Summary of Redbird Smith's Activism
| Initiative | Goal | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Resistance to Dawes Act | Preserve communal lands and traditional values | Led political and religious resistance |
| Mexico Land Claim (1910) | Recover lands based on 1820 documentation | Rejected by Mexican government |
| Keetoowah Reservation (1914) | Establish a protected tribal area | Rejected by President Woodrow Wilson |
| Traditional Community (1921) | Create a cohesive traditional living space | Established in Cherokee County, Oklahoma |
Frequently Asked Questions
What was the primary purpose of the Dawes Act?
The Dawes Act was designed to break up communal tribal lands into individual allotments to encourage Native Americans to adopt European-American subsistence farming and facilitate their assimilation into American society.
How did the Dawes Commission handle "surplus" land?
After allotting land to individual heads of households, the Dawes Commission declared any remaining land as "surplus," which the U.S. government then sold, including to non-native buyers.
Who were the Nighthawk Keetoowahs?
The Nighthawk Keetoowahs were a group within the Cherokee Nation that Redbird Smith led, first as chairman and later as chief starting in 1910, focusing on traditional values and land rights.
Why did the U.S. government reject the request for a Keetoowah reservation?
The government rejected the petition sent to President Woodrow Wilson in 1914 because they believed that reservations hindered the assimilation policy for Native Americans.
What was Redbird Smith's achievement in 1921?
He conceptualized and led the movement of 100 Cherokee people from 35 families to the southeastern corner of Cherokee County, Oklahoma, to establish a traditional community.