Redbird Smith and the Keetoowah Nighthawk Society
The history of the Cherokee Nation is marked by a profound struggle to maintain cultural identity in the face of systemic erasure. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Cherokee people faced aggressive federal policies designed to dismantle their tribal governance and social structures. In this climate of instability, leaders like Redbird Smith emerged to safeguard the spiritual and cultural heritage of their people.
The Impact of the Dawes Commission
In the 1890s, the United States government established the Dawes Commission, a body tasked with forcing the assimilation of the Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma. The commission sought to break up tribal governments by replacing the traditional system of communal land holding with individual household allotments. By instilling the concept of private land ownership, the federal government aimed to eliminate the traditional Cherokee governance structures.
This shift destabilized Cherokee society and placed the tribe under strict federal control. The government appointed chiefs who functioned primarily as administrators to implement assimilation programs. Parallel to this, the government sponsored Indian boarding schools, where children were removed from their families and prohibited from speaking their native languages or practicing their traditional religions.
The Rise of the Keetoowah Nighthawk Society
To resist this cultural erosion, Redbird Smith and other elders formed a secret society known as the Keetoowah Nighthawk Society. This group served as a sanctuary where traditional ceremonies, beliefs, and pre-removal cultural practices could be preserved in secret.
![Keetoowah Nighthawk Society leaders Redbird Smith and Bluford Sixkiller instructing children in Cherokee rituals, from Starr (1921).[1]](/images/06/dc/06dc49a94588ccfa52856cbea8f622ee7248dc7b0846d9b4aaff3a15ba83def5.png)
In 1889, the Redbird Movement began, splitting from the original Keetoowah to create the Keetoowah Nighthawk. This modernized version of the society was more political in nature and held meetings at gatiyo, which are traditional ceremonial stomp grounds. During this era, descendants of Chief John Ross reintroduced Cherokee wampum belts to the society as symbols of their heritage.
The Leadership of Redbird Smith
Born on July 19, 1850, near Fort Smith, Arkansas, Redbird Smith was the son of Pig Redbird Smith and Lizzie Hildebrand Smith. His father, a devoted supporter of the Long House's ancient rituals, committed Redbird to the service of the Cherokee people from a young age. Redbird eventually rose to become the chairman of the council.
![Photograph of Redbird Smith, from Starr (1921).[1]](/images/84/da/84daa240c23f5eab2110d87fafa74f02b174691eaf225356c98f59094666e802.png)
In 1908, the Keetoowah Nighthawk Council elected Redbird Smith as their chief. He became a pivotal figure in revitalizing Cherokee spirituality, urging his people to unite and contribute to mankind through work, intelligence, and spiritual loyalty. He specifically emphasized that those of mixed-blood heritage should be included in this racial awakening to ensure a strong ancestral legacy for future generations.
Despite his efforts, the Keetoowah Nighthawks were unable to stop the allotment of communal lands. Redbird Smith and several of his followers were eventually jailed for their resistance to land allotment and the mandatory registration of tribal members. Redbird Smith passed away in 1918, marking the end of the Redbird Movement.
Key Facts
- Redbird Smith: Leader of the Keetoowah Nighthawk Society and advocate for Cherokee spiritual revitalization.
- Dawes Commission: A federal initiative in the 1890s that replaced communal land holdings with individual allotments to force assimilation.
- Keetoowah Nighthawk Society: A secret society formed to preserve pre-removal Cherokee ceremonies and beliefs.
- Gatiyo: Traditional Cherokee stomp grounds used for ceremonial meetings.
- Boarding Schools: Government-sponsored institutions used to suppress Native American languages and cultures.
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Founder/Leader | Redbird Smith (Chief elected 1908) |
| Primary Goal | Preservation of traditional Cherokee culture and spirituality |
| Key Opposition | Dawes Commission and land allotment programs |
| Meeting Locations | Gatiyo (Stomp grounds) |
| Timeline | Late 19th century through 1918 |
Frequently Asked Questions
What was the purpose of the Dawes Commission?
The Dawes Commission was designed to force the assimilation of the Five Civilized Tribes by breaking up communal tribal lands into individual household allotments, thereby undermining traditional tribal governments.
Who was Redbird Smith?
Redbird Smith was a prominent Cherokee leader and the chief of the Keetoowah Nighthawk Society who worked to revitalize traditional spirituality and resist the cultural erosion caused by federal assimilation policies.
What are gatiyo?
Gatiyo are traditional Cherokee ceremonial areas, commonly referred to as stomp grounds, where the Keetoowah Nighthawks held their political and spiritual meetings.
How did the government attempt to assimilate Cherokee children?
The government sponsored Indian boarding schools where children were separated from their families and forbidden from practicing their culture, religion, or speaking their native languages.
Why was Redbird Smith imprisoned?
Redbird Smith and some of his followers were jailed for their active resistance against the federal government's land allotment programs and the registration of tribal members.