Race Records: The Foundation of the African American Music Industry
Between the 1920s and 1940s, a specific category of 78-rpm phonograph records emerged as a cultural powerhouse in the United States. Known as race records, these recordings were marketed specifically to African Americans and captured the essence of a wide array of genres, including blues, jazz, gospel, rhythm and blues, and comedy. For decades, these records represented the vast majority of commercial recordings by African American artists, as very few were marketed to white audiences at the time.
The industry was driven by major labels such as Okeh Records, Emerson Records, Vocalion Records, the Victor Talking Machine Company, and Paramount Records. This era not only documented a rich musical heritage but also laid the groundwork for the modern music charts we recognize today.
Key Facts
- Definition: Phonograph records marketed to African Americans from the 1920s to the 1940s.
- Pioneering Artist: Mamie Smith's 1920 recording "Crazy Blues" sparked the commercial race records boom.
- Key Labels: Major players included Okeh, Paramount, and the African American-owned Black Swan Records.
- Terminology Shift: The term "race records" was eventually replaced by "rhythm and blues" (R&B) in 1949.
- Chart History: The Billboard "Race Records" chart (1945–1949) was a precursor to today's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.
The Rise of the Recording Industry
At the dawn of the twentieth century, phonographs were luxury items that most African Americans could not afford. As costs declined, records became accessible to a broader population. Interestingly, the primary goal of these records was often to drive the sales of record players, which were typically sold in furniture stores.
Due to systemic segregation, black and white consumers shopped at different stores, leading to a divide in the music available to each group. While mainstream records of the 1890s and early 1900s targeted urban, middle-class white Americans, there were early exceptions. George W. Johnson, a whistler, is believed to be the first black artist to record commercially in 1890, and Broadway stars Bert Williams and George Walker recorded for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1901.
Despite these early efforts, African American artists before the 1920s were rarely acknowledged or fairly compensated, often signing contracts for single records that offered no future security.
The Mamie Smith Breakthrough
The trajectory of the industry changed in 1920. Composer Perry Bradford convinced Fred Hager, an executive at Okeh Records, to record Mamie Smith, an artist who deviated from the popular white music of the era. Her recording of "Crazy Blues" and "It's Right Here for You" sold 75,000 copies in its first month, primarily to black audiences.
This unexpected success triggered a gold rush. Okeh began recruiting more blues singers, and other giants followed: Columbia Records entered the market in 1921, Paramount Records in 1922, and Vocalion in the mid-1920s.
Terminology and Cultural Context
The term "race records" was coined by Okeh Records in 1922. While it may seem derogatory today, the African American press of the early 20th century frequently used "the Race" to refer to African Americans collectively, and "race man" or "race woman" to describe individuals who took pride in their culture.
As the industry evolved, the terminology shifted to reflect changing social dynamics. In 1942, Billboard introduced the "Harlem Hit Parade," which listed the most popular records in Harlem. By June 1949, following a suggestion by journalist Jerry Wexler, the term "rhythm and blues" (R&B) officially replaced "race music" to better suit "more enlightened times."
Marketing and Exploitation
As radio became a competitor in the late 1920s, record labels intensified their marketing. They advertised in brochures and newspapers like the Chicago Defender, using imagery and language that appealed to shared experiences—specifically targeting African Americans who had moved North and wished to stay connected to their Southern roots.
To find talent, companies like Okeh and Paramount sent field scouts to the South. These "field recordings" were often marketed as spontaneous, genuine encounters, though they were typically arranged. Many artists were signed to one-time deals, leaving their long-term aspirations ignored.
Historians debate the motivations behind this marketing. Some argue it was pure exploitation to expand producer capital, while others suggest the use of segregated numerical series for records was a deliberate attempt to maintain societal racial divisions. Others view it simply as a profit-driven move, leveraging low production costs and a captive consumer market.
Black Swan Records: A Challenge to the Status Quo
In 1921, businessman Harry Pace founded Black Swan Records to integrate the black community into the music industry. Unlike white-owned labels, Black Swan paid fair wages and allowed artists to use their real names. Pace aimed to prove that African Americans could overcome social barriers and achieve economic success.
Black Swan expanded the definition of race records by issuing classical music, opera, and spirituals, seeking to advance African American culture beyond popular stereotypes. Despite facing threats from white competitors, the company issued roughly 500 records per year before being purchased by Paramount Records in 1924.
The Great Depression and the Shift to Radio
The Great Depression devastated the race record market, leaving many musicians unemployed. As the public shifted toward radio, major companies dropped race records from their catalogs. Black listenership remained low (under 10%) because the music they preferred was rarely aired. Furthermore, networks like NBC and CBS often hired white singers to record "cover versions" of black music, further marginalizing the original artists.
It was not until after World War II that rhythm and blues gained a significant foothold on the radio, eventually evolving into the Soul and Black charts of the later 20th century.
| Period | Primary Terminology | Key Market Drivers | Notable Labels |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1920s - 1940s | Race Records / Race Music | 78-rpm records, Field recordings | Okeh, Paramount, Vocalion, Victor |
| 1921 - 1924 | Race Records | Black ownership, Cultural advancement | Black Swan Records |
| 1942 - 1949 | Harlem Hit Parade → R&B | Billboard charts, Jukebox plays | Various Major Labels |
Frequently Asked Questions
What exactly were race records?
Race records were 78-rpm phonograph records produced between the 1920s and 1940s and marketed specifically to African American audiences, featuring genres like blues, jazz, and gospel.
Who was the first black artist to record commercially?
George W. Johnson, a whistler, is widely believed to be the first black artist to record commercially, doing so in 1890.
Why was Mamie Smith important to the industry?
Mamie Smith's 1920 recording of "Crazy Blues" sold 75,000 copies in one month, proving to record executives that there was a massive, profitable market for African American music.
How did Black Swan Records differ from other labels?
Founded by Harry Pace, Black Swan was African American-owned, paid fair wages, allowed artists to use their real names, and recorded diverse genres including opera and classical music.
When did the term "rhythm and blues" replace "race records"?
The transition occurred in June 1949, when Billboard journalist Jerry Wexler suggested the name "Rhythm & Blues" for the magazine's music chart to better reflect the era.
How did the Great Depression affect these recordings?
The economic crash destroyed the market for race records, leading major companies to remove them from catalogs and causing many black musicians to lose their livelihoods.