Mangas Coloradas: The Rise and Resistance of an Apache War Chief
The history of the American Southwest is marked by the fierce resistance of the Apache people against encroaching colonial powers. Among their most formidable leaders was Mangas Coloradas, a war chief of the Coppermine Mimbreño Apaches. His leadership spanned decades of shifting alliances, brutal warfare, and a relentless struggle to protect Apache lands from Mexican and United States expansion.
The Conflict with Mexico
During the 1820s and 1830s, the primary adversaries of the Apache were the Mexicans, who had secured independence from Spain in 1821. Tensions escalated significantly by 1835 when the Mexican government established a bounty on Apache scalps. This period of violence reached a turning point in 1837 during the massacre at Santa Rita del Cobre, where Juan José Compa, the leader of the Coppermine Mimbreño Apaches, was killed for bounty money.
In the wake of Compa's death, Mangas Coloradas rose to prominence as a war leader and chief. Alongside his close companion and possible brother-in-law, Cuchillo Negro (Spanish for "Black Knife"), Mangas launched a series of retaliatory raids. They targeted the mining town of Santa Rita, besieging the settlement and inflicting heavy casualties on fleeing Mexican columns. For approximately 25 years, Mangas Coloradas served as the principal leader of the Coppermine Mimbreños, while Cuchillo Negro led the Warm Springs Mimbreños.
[ไม่มีภาพประกอบ]Shifting Alliances and the United States
The geopolitical landscape shifted in 1846 when the United States entered a war with Mexico. Recognizing the Americans as conquerors of their hated Mexican enemies, the Apache Nation granted U.S. soldiers safe passage through their territories. Following the U.S. occupation of New Mexico, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty, initiating a period of uneasy coexistence.
This peace began to erode as gold miners flooded into the Pinos Altos Mountains of New Mexico. Tensions further spiked in 1851 with the reopening of the Santa Rita del Cobre copper mines and the arrival of a U.S. delegation from the Mexican-American Border Commission, which included John Russell Bartlett. Mangas Coloradas, along with other chiefs such as Delgadito, Ponce, and Coleto Amarillo, met with Bartlett in June 1851 to address the growing feelings of betrayal and disappointment regarding the newcomers.
Escalation and the Bascom Affair
The relationship between the Apache and U.S. settlers deteriorated into open conflict. In December 1860, a group of 30 miners launched a surprise attack on a Bedonkohes encampment on the west bank of the Mimbres River, resulting in four deaths and the capture of thirteen women and children. In response, Mangas Coloradas began raiding U.S. citizens and their property.
The situation reached a breaking point in February 1861 due to the Bascom Affair. Lieutenant George Nicholas Bascom, investigating the alleged kidnapping of a rancher's son, lured the chief Cochise—the principal leader of the Tsokanende or Chiricahua Apache—into a trap at Apache Pass in southeastern Arizona. While Cochise escaped, his family and several warriors were captured. The subsequent failed negotiations led to the hanging of Cochise's brother and five other warriors by Bascom.
This atrocity forged a powerful alliance between Mangas Coloradas and Cochise, who were linked not only by war but by family; Mangas' daughter, Dos-Teh-Seh, was married to Cochise. Together, they vowed to drive all Americans out of Apache territory. They were joined by other notable leaders, including Nana, Victorio, Juh, Geronimo, and Delgadito. While they did not achieve their ultimate goal, the white population in Apache territory was significantly reduced for several years during the American Civil War, as federal troops were withdrawn to the east.
[ไม่มีภาพประกอบ]Key Facts
- Leadership: Mangas Coloradas led the Coppermine Mimbreño Apaches for roughly 25 years.
- Catalyst for War: The 1837 massacre at Santa Rita del Cobre and Mexican scalp bounties drove early retaliatory raids.
- Strategic Alliance: Mangas Coloradas and Cochise allied in 1861 following the Bascom Affair to expel U.S. forces.
- Family Ties: The alliance was strengthened by the marriage of Mangas' daughter, Dos-Teh-Seh, to Cochise.
- Key Adversaries: Initially the Mexican government, and later U.S. miners and the U.S. Army.
Summary of Apache Leadership and Conflict
| Leader/Figure | Affiliation | Key Role/Event |
|---|---|---|
| Mangas Coloradas | Coppermine Mimbreño | Principal leader; allied with Cochise against the U.S. |
| Cuchillo Negro | Warm Springs Mimbreño | Companion to Mangas; led retaliatory raids against Mexico. |
| Cochise | Tsokanende (Chiricahua) | Target of the Bascom Affair; allied with Mangas Coloradas. |
| George N. Bascom | U.S. Army | Triggered the Bascom Affair at Apache Pass. |
| Juan José Compa | Coppermine Mimbreño | Killed in 1837, leading to Mangas' rise as war chief. |
Frequently Asked Questions
Why did Mangas Coloradas initially sign a peace treaty with the United States?
Mangas Coloradas respected the United States as the conquerors of the Mexicans, who had been the Apaches' primary enemies and had placed bounties on their scalps.
What was the Bascom Affair?
The Bascom Affair was an incident in February 1861 where Lieutenant George Nicholas Bascom lured Cochise and his family into a trap at Apache Pass. It resulted in the execution of Cochise's brother and five warriors, sparking a major war between the Apache and the U.S.
Who were the primary allies of Mangas Coloradas during his resistance?
His primary allies included Cuchillo Negro, Cochise, Delgadito, Nana, Victorio, Juh, and Geronimo.
What caused the peace between the Apache and the U.S. to fail in the 1850s?
The peace failed due to the influx of gold miners into the Pinos Altos Mountains and the reopening of the copper mines at Santa Rita del Cobre, which increased tensions and led to conflict.
Is the story of Mangas Coloradas being flogged by miners verified?
There is historical debate. While John C. Cremony's book claims miners tied and flogged him near Pinos Altos in 1861, historian Edwin R. Sweeney questions this, noting that Geronimo likely would have mentioned such an event to his biographer.