1870 United States Census: A Post-Civil War Demographic Portrait
The 1870 United States census stands as a pivotal moment in American record-keeping, serving as the ninth national census. Conducted by the Census Office between June 1, 1870, and August 23, 1871, this survey captured a nation in transition. Coming just five years after the end of the Civil War and the granting of freedom to enslaved people, it provided the first detailed demographic data on the African American population as free citizens.
The results revealed a total population of 38,925,598, representing a 22.6% increase from the 1860 census. This era marked a significant shift in urbanization, as it was the first time all 100 of the largest American cities recorded populations exceeding 10,000 residents.
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Key Facts
- Total Population: 38,925,598 (a 22.6% increase since 1860).
- Most Populous State: New York, with 4,382,759 residents.
- Least Populous State: Nevada, with 42,941 residents.
- Historical First: First census to provide detailed information on the African American population post-emancipation.
- Administrative Shift: The final federal census to utilize the US Marshal Service for enumeration.
Administrative Framework and Organization
The machinery for the ninth census was established by the Census Act of 1850. The Census Office, operating under the Department of the Interior, managed the recording and tabulation of data. The actual gathering of information was performed by assistant marshals, who were hired and supervised by federal marshals.
Two significant structural changes were introduced in 1870: marshals were required to return completed questionnaires by September, and legal penalties for refusing to answer enumerator questions were expanded to cover every item on the form.
Census Schedules
To reflect the societal changes following the Civil War, previous slave questionnaires were redesigned. The 1870 census utilized five primary schedules to categorize data:
- General Population
- Mortality
- Agriculture
- Products of Industry
- Social Statistics
Economic and Social Insights
The 1870 data provided a window into the improving quality of life and growing wealth of the United States. Mortality rates decreased as a fraction of the total population compared to 1850 and 1860, suggesting an increase in the general standard of living due to exogenous factors (external influences).
Economically, total U.S. wealth rose by 17.3% between 1860 and 1870, reaching an assessed value of $14,178,986,732. This wealth was heavily concentrated in the Northeast, with New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Ohio serving as the largest contributors. Meanwhile, newer territories like Wyoming were only beginning to establish their economies.
Immigration and Nativity
For the first time, the census recorded the nativity (place of birth) of the population. This allowed the government to identify areas with high immigrant concentrations. New York City emerged as the primary hub for foreign-born residents, with 419,094 foreigners making up 44.5% of its population. Other cities with significant immigrant populations included Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco.
Population Breakdown and Results
The census distinguished between the total population and the constitutional population. The latter excluded Native Americans living on government reservations and the newly acquired district of Alaska, as these figures were not used for congressional apportionment.
| Group | Total United States | States Only | Territories |
|---|---|---|---|
| True Population | 38,925,598 | 38,205,598 | 720,000 |
| Constitutional Population | 38,558,371 | 38,115,641 | 442,730 |
| White Population | 33,589,377 | 33,203,128 | 386,249 |
| Black Population | 4,880,009 | 4,835,106 | 44,903 |
| Native American (on reservations) | 357,981 | 89,957 | 268,024 |
| Chinese Population | 63,199 | 56,124 | 7,075 |
The Controversy of the Undercount
Despite the efforts of Superintendent Francis Amasa Walker, the 1870 census was plagued by allegations of underenumeration. Critics in New York and Philadelphia claimed that up to a third of their populations were missed, possibly because residents remained indoors during the winter cold. While the President ordered a recount, the results showed only a modest increase: 2% in New York and 2.5% in Philadelphia.
This debate resurfaced in 1890 when growth rates between 1880 and 1890 appeared unusually low. Some investigators suggested the 1870 census had missed over 1.2 million people, which would have made the 1880 growth look exaggerated. However, modern social scientists generally view these discrepancies as comparable to non-response rates found in modern census data rather than a massive systemic failure.
Frequently Asked Questions
What made the 1870 census different from previous ones?
It was the first census to provide detailed data on the African American population following the Civil War and the first to record the nativity (birthplace) of the population to track immigration patterns.
Who was responsible for collecting the data in 1870?
The data was gathered by assistant marshals under the supervision of federal marshals, making it the last federal census to use the US Marshal Service as enumerators.
Why was the "Constitutional Population" different from the "True Population"?
The constitutional population excluded Native Americans living on government reservations and residents of the newly acquired district of Alaska for the purposes of congressional apportionment.
Which cities had the highest immigrant populations?
New York City had the highest number of foreign-born residents (419,094), accounting for 44.5% of its population. Other cities with significant immigrant populations included Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco.
What information was collected on individual residents?
The census collected names, age, sex, color, profession, real and personal estate values, birthplace, parents' birthplaces, education status (school attendance and literacy), and citizenship/voting rights for males 21 and older.